Study Notes on Latin American

Post-Washington Consensus

Definition

A set of ideas that emerged after dissatisfaction with neoliberal reforms. It accepted markets but

argued that the state should play a stronger role in reducing poverty and inequality.

Brief History

During the 1990s, Latin American governments adopted neoliberal reforms inspired by the

Washington Consensus. While inflation often fell and economies stabilized, many citizens felt

the benefits were unevenly distributed.

Why It Matters

This concept helps explain why voters turned toward leftist parties.

Essay Connection

Use it when discussing:

● Rise of the Left

● Failure of Neoliberalism

● Poverty and Inequality

Example

Conditional cash transfer programs became a major Post-Washington Consensus policy.

Moderate Left

Definition

Leftist governments that pursued social welfare expansion while maintaining democratic

institutions and fiscal discipline.

Brief History

Appeared during the Pink Tide beginning in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Countries

● Brazil

● Chile

● Uruguay

Why It Matters

Shows that not all leftist governments followed the same model.

Essay Connection

Compare with Radical Left.

Example

Expanded social programs while maintaining market economies.

Radical (Populist) Left

Definition

Leftist governments that pursued more aggressive state intervention and often concentrated

power in the executive branch.

Brief History

Rose alongside the Pink Tide but followed a more confrontational approach.

Countries

● Venezuela

● Bolivia

● Ecuador

Why It Matters

Frequently linked to democratic erosion and fiscal instability.

Essay Connection

Compare democratic outcomes between moderate and radical left governments.

Example

Constitutional reforms expanding presidential power

Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs)

Definition

Programs providing money to poor families in exchange for behaviors such as school attendance

or medical checkups.

Brief History

Expanded throughout Latin America during the 2000s.

Why It Matters

One of the most successful anti-poverty programs in the region.

Essay Connection

Evidence that left governments reduced poverty.

Example

Brazil's Bolsa Família.

Institutions

efinition

The formal and informal rules that shape political behavior.

Brief History

Political scientists increasingly focused on institutions because countries with similar cultures

often produced different outcomes due to different rules.

Why It Matters

Institutions determine how politicians behave and how power is distributed.

Essay Connection

Virtually every topic:

● Corruption

● Violence

● Clientelism

● Democracy

Example

Presidentialism itself is an institution.

Rational Choice Institutionalism

Definition

The idea that political actors pursue their interests but are constrained by institutions.

Why It Matters

Explains why politicians respond strategically to incentives.

Essay Connection

Useful when discussing:

● Clientelism

● Corruption

● Presidential behavior

Example

Politicians engage in clientelism because institutions create incentives for it.

Presidential System

Definition

A system where the president is independently elected and serves a fixed term.

Historical Relevance

Most Latin American countries adopted presidential systems inspired partly by the United States.

Why It Matters

Central to debates about democratic stability.

Essay Connection

The entire presidentialism section.

Dual Democratic Legitimacy

Definition

Both the president and legislature are elected by the people and can claim democratic legitimacy.

Why It Matters

Can create deadlock.

Essay Connection

One of the classic perils of presidentialism.

Example

President and Congress both claim a mandate but disagree.

Rigidity of Presidentialism

Definition

Presidents serve fixed terms and are difficult to remove.

Why It Matters

Political crises become harder to resolve.

Essay Connection

Compare with parliamentary systems.

Example

An unpopular president may remain in office despite losing support.

Political Outsider

Definition

A candidate with weak ties to traditional parties.

Brief History

Outsiders became common as trust in parties declined.

Why It Matters

Can win elections but struggle to govern.

Essay Connection

Linked to weak party systems and democratic instability.

Proactive Legislative Powers

Definition

Powers allowing presidents to actively shape legislation.

Examples

● Initiating bills

● Budget proposals

● Decree authority

Why It Matters

Can strengthen presidential influence.

Essay Connection

Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of presidentialism.

Reactive Legislative Powers

Definition

Powers allowing presidents to block legislation.

Example

Veto power.

Why It Matters

Presidents can stop unwanted policies.

Essay Connection

Important when discussing executive-legislative relations.

Interrupted Presidencies

Definition

Presidents who leave office before their term ends.

Historical Relevance

Common in Latin America since democratization.

Why It Matters

Raises debate:

● Democratic flexibility?

● Democratic instability?

Essay Connection

Presidential stability.

Fear of Crime

Definition

Citizens' perception that crime is a serious threat.

Why It Matters

Often influences politics more than actual crime rates.

Essay Connection

Explains support for tough security policies.

Example

Support for mano dura policies.

Drug Cartel

Definition

Large criminal organizations involved in drug trafficking.

Historical Relevance

Expanded due to global drug demand.

Why It Matters

Major source of violence.

Essay Connection

Violence and state weakness.

Criminal Gangs

Definition

Smaller criminal organizations involved in local criminal activity.

Example

MS-13.

Why It Matters

Major contributors to urban violence.

Essay Connection

Violence and insecurity

Militias

Definition

Armed groups operating outside normal state control.

Why It Matters

Often blur the line between state and criminal actors.

Essay Connection

State weakness and governance.

Authoritarian Coercio

Definition

Use of force, intimidation, or repression by governments.

Why It Matters

Governments may justify repression as crime control.

Essay Connection

Democratic backsliding.

Mano Dura

Definition

"Heavy hand" security policies emphasizing punishment and force.

Historical Relevance

Popular throughout Central America.

Why It Matters

Reflects public demand for security.

Essay Connection

Crime and democracy.

Criticism

Often fails to address root causes.

Clientelism

Definition

Exchange of material benefits for political support.

Historical Relevance

Has existed throughout Latin American history.

Why It Matters

Affects elections and representation.

Essay Connection

Causes, persistence, and consequences.

Example

Food baskets exchanged for votes.

Programmatic Politics

Definition

Support based on policies rather than private benefits.

Why It Matters

Generally considered healthier for democracy.

Essay Connection

Compare directly with clientelism.

List Experiments

Definition

Survey technique used to measure sensitive behaviors indirectly.

Why It Matters

People rarely admit participating in clientelism.

Essay Connection

Measurement of clientelism.

Brokers

Definition

Middlemen who connect politicians with voters.

Why It Matters

Essential for clientelistic networks.

Essay Connection

Explain enforcement of clientelism.

Patronage

Definition

Distribution of public jobs in exchange for political loyalty.

Relationship to Clientelism

Patronage is a specific form of clientelism.

Essay Connection

Administrative consequences.

Perverse Accountability

Definition

Citizens reward politicians for delivering private goods rather than public policies.

Why It Matters

Helps explain why clientelism survives.

Essay Connection

Persistence of clientelism.

Corruption

Definition

Use of public office for private gain.

Why It Matters

One of the region's biggest governance challenges.

Essay Connection

Entire corruption section.

Petty Corruption

Definition

Small-scale everyday corruption.

Example

Bribing a police officer.

Essay Connection

Types of corruption.

High-Level Corruptio

Definition

Corruption involving top political and economic elites.

Example

Presidents receiving kickbacks.

Essay Connection

Political consequences.

Public Procurement

Definition

Government purchasing of goods and services.

Why It Matters

Large contracts create opportunities for corruption.

Essay Connection

State-corporate corruption.

Self-Dealing Corruption

Definition

Officials use power to enrich themselves directly.

Example

Awarding contracts to relatives.

Essay Connection

Types of high-level corruption.

State-Corporate Corrupt

Definition

Collusion between politicians and businesses.

Example

Construction companies bribing officials.

Essay Connection

Lava Jato.

State-Organized Crime

Definition

Government officials cooperate with criminal organizations.

Why It Matters

Most severe form of corruption.

Essay Connection

Links corruption and violence.

Lava Jato ("Operation Car Wash")

Definition

Massive Brazilian anti-corruption investigation.

Historical Importance

Revealed widespread corruption involving politicians and businesses.

Why It Matters

The most important corruption case discussed in Latin America.

Essay Connection

Institutional responses to corruption.

CICIG (Guatemala)

Definition

International anti-corruption commission supported by the UN.

Why It Matters

One of the strongest anti-corruption efforts in the region.

Essay Connection

Institutional responses and accountability.