IB History DE

In the late 1400s and 1500s, European overseas exploration, conquest, and settlement resulted in a series of actions and adaptations among Europeans, Indigenous Americans, and Africans. Eventually, the impact of conquest and settlement in the New World was felt in the Old World. Expansion in the Americas resulted in increased competition among the nations of Europe as well as in the promotion of empire building.

The efforts by European nations to explore and conquer the New World starting in the late 1400s stemmed from a variety of factors. These factors include a desire for new sources of wealth, competition for power and status, and a push among Christian denominations for new converts. Several important changes in Europe set the groundwork for exploration and conquest. The 3 major motivations for European exploration and conquest were “God, Glory, and Gold.”

The series of religious wars known as the Crusades shook the stability of European feudal society and whet the appetites of Europeans for foreign trade goods. Starting in 1095, with a proclamation from Pope Urban II, the goal of the wars was to establish Christian control of the Muslim-ruled “Holy Land” (Jerusalem and its surrounding area).

Although, by the end of the 1200s, the wars ended in defeat for the Crusaders, the experience of the Crusades sparked change in Europe. The relatively self-sufficient manorial world of feudal Europe began its long demise during this period, as trade routes and regional and international economic activity shifted power and priorities. Europeans became interested in circumventing the Italian city-states and finding new trade routes with the East.

The Black Death, probably caused by a pandemic outbreak of bubonic plague in the 1300s, reduced the European population by 30 to 60%. Although the effects of the Black Death were devastating for Europe, the plague also opened up opportunities for the survivors. Food and land were more plentiful in the aftermath of the Black Death. Individuals became more willing to take risks and seek opportunities. The Black Death also played an important role in undermining the stability of the feudal system.

The Renaissance spirit of curiosity about the world inspired people to explore and map new areas. Universities and scholarly books–also infused with the spirit of Renaissance humanism–spread knowledge of these new discoveries. Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press (developed in the 1440s) helped disseminate information and stimulated interest in new discoveries.

Religious movements in the 1500s renewed many people’s religious zeal and their desire to spread their beliefs. The most impactful religious movement of that period was the Protestant Reformation. Theologians Martin Luther and John Calvin both broke with the Roman Catholic Church over church practices and beliefs. Both believed that the church had drifted from its spiritual mission. The practice of selling indulgences by some members of the Catholic Church was especially galling to Luther.

Although his reasons were more political than theological. King Henry VIII of England led a break with the Catholic Church when the Pope refused to grant him a divorce from Spain’s Catherine of Aragon. Some English Protestants, the Puritans, believed that the English Protestant Reformation did not go far enough. Motivated by Calvinist thinking, the Puritans argued for a complete and at times violent reformation in the Church of England.

The Catholic Church itself underwent a reform in the 1500s. This Counter-Reformation focused on a renewed sense of spirituality within the Catholic Church. Out of this movement came the Jesuits, a Catholic order devoted to spreading Catholic doctrine throughout the world. The Inquisition was used across Catholic-controlled Europe and in the Americas to maintain Catholic doctrine as well.

Historians refer to the introduction of new products and organisms on each side of the Atlantic as the “Columbian Exchange.” The Columbian Exchange and the expansion of the Spanish Empire in the 1400s and 1500s ushered in momentous demographic, economic, and social changes.

The “Columbian Exchange” led to the introduction to Europe of crops and livestock that were native to the Americas in the 1500s. The list of organisms brought by Europeans back to the Old World included turkeys, corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cacao (cocoa), and tomatoes. These foods revolutionized agricultural and culinary traditions in Europe and supplemented the meager diets of the European peasantry. Spanish sailors brought the disease syphilis back to Europe. Tobacco, too, was introduced and started a craze among Europeans.

It is assumed that since conquest brought so much hardship to Indigenous Americans as well as to Africans, it must have surely brought improvements to the status of Europeans. However this was for the most part, not the case. The position of ordinary Spanish people declined during the age of exploration and conquest. First, the influx of silver and gold into Spain set off a wave of inflation in the 1500s that made many ordinary items considerably more expensive. Second, in Spain taxes went up more than fivefold in the 1500s, so that the monarchy could pay for the military expenditures necessary to secure its New World empire. Third, Spain went into debt, as it borrowed more and more from European banks to maintain its empire. The interest on this debt also depressed the Spanish economy; in many ways ordinary Spanish people did not recover from this period until the 1800s.

A series of developments in maritime technology encouraged exploration and transformed the global economy. The compass, the astrolabe, the quadrant, and the hourglass all aided navigation, helping sailors plot direction, determine speed, and assess latitude. Portulanos, detailed maps, also helped navigators find their way around the world, many sailing on Portugal's maneuverable and sturdy ships called caravels.

The joint-stock company model was developed in Europe in the 1500s and became an important engine for exploration and colonization in the New World. In a joint-stock company, shareholders control part of the company in proportion to the number of shares they own.

The joint-stock company model was embraced by many of the European nations embarking on risky expeditions of exploration, colonization, and trade. The risks involved would then be spread out among multiple investors. Another advantage of the joint-stock company is the concept of limited liability; the shareholders can be held liable for company debts, but their liability is limited to the face value of their shareholding.