Soiological Theory pt. 2

Symbolic Interactionism

focuses on how people learn meanings and behaviors through everyday interactions and socialization.

Social Darwinism

Applies ideas about evolution and survival to human society. Can be used to figure out why differences evolved

Marxism

focuses on how economic systems, wealth, labor, and control of resources create inequality.

differential socialization

people are taught different behaviors, expectations, and roles based on their social characteristics, such as gender.

EX: girls may be encouraged to be caring, emotional, and cooperative while boys may be encouraged to be independent, competitive, and tough.

Spencer’s evolutionary law

sees women as naturally more loving and men as more violent – too deterministic
for today.

Advanced individual

someone who can see that society's rules aren't necessarily natural or inevitable, question what everyone else takes for granted, recognize unfair social hierarchies, and push for change.

Empiricism

Gaining knowledge through observation and evidence.

division of labor

Breaking work into separate, specialized tasks.

collective + rational

Social structures shape behavior through rules, economic systems, and calculated interests.

EX: People follow laws because society punishes rule-breaking.

collective + nonrational

Shared values, morals, and traditions shape behavior.

EX: People follow laws because they believe it is the right thing to do.

individual + rational

Individuals make choices based on costs and benefits.

EX: Someone follows a rule to avoid getting a ticket.

individual + nonrational

Individual habits, emotions, and personal values influence behavior.

EX: Someone stops at a red light automatically out of habit.

securalization theory

The idea that religion becomes less influential as societies become more modern. The chapter notes that this theory is debated.

canon

The group of thinkers considered especially important in a field. The textbook notes that deciding who belongs in sociology's canon is subjective and has historically involved debates about whose ideas are included.

historical materialism

Marx believed that material and economic conditions shape society and history.

In other words, how people produce goods, organize work, and distribute resources influences social institutions, politics, laws, education, and ideas.

surplus value

The value workers produce beyond what they receive in wages; Marx viewed this as the source of capitalist profit.

commodification

Treating something, including human labor, as something that can be bought and sold.

hegemony

In Gramsci's theory, domination maintained partly through people's acceptance of the ruling class's ideas and values.

idealism

The view that ideas or consciousness are central to understanding reality and historical change.

synthesis

A new position that emerges from the interaction between opposing ideas.

commodity fetishism

people focus on the products they buy while overlooking the labor and social relationships behind them.

social solidarity

The bonds and feelings of connection that hold people together.

supraindividual force

A force that exists beyond any one person, such as society's rules and expectations.

Sui generis

Latin for "unique" or "of its own kind"; society is a reality that cannot be reduced to just the individuals within it.

anomie

A condition in which social norms are weakened, unclear, or conflicting, leaving people without clear guidance.

utilitarianism

The view that individuals pursue their own interests or advantages.

mechanical solidarity

People are connected through their similarities and tend to share similar beliefs, values, and ways of life. The group has a strong influence on individuals. There is generally less specialized division of labor.

-similarity connects people

organic solidarity

People are connected through their differences and specialized roles, and perform different jobs and responsibilities. Individuals depend on one another to meet their needs. The division of labor helps integrate society.

-interdependence connects people.

Collective effervescence

The shared energy and excitement people experience when participating in a group gathering or ritual.

EX: Fans cheering together at a major sporting event.

functional religion

Defines religion by what it does for society, such as bringing people together, creating social bonds, and reinforcing shared values and beliefs.

substantive religion

Defines religion by what it is or what it believes in, such as beliefs in supernatural beings, gods, or sacred powers.

Verstehen

Interpretive understanding; trying to understand the meaning or motivation behind someone's behavior.

EX: Instead of only observing that a student volunteers, a sociologist asks why they volunteer. Maybe they care about helping people, want to build a résumé, or feel pressure from their family.

Causality

The relationship between causes and outcomes. Weber emphasized that social outcomes are often influenced by several factors, rather than one guaranteed cause.

Elective affinity

A relationship in which certain ideas, interests, or social conditions fit together and tend to support a particular outcome.

social facts

They exist before any one individual and outside that person's private thoughts. They can pressure or guide people to behave in certain ways. They are shared across a group or society, rather than being only one person's private preference.

iron cage

The way rationalized systems, capitalism, and bureaucracy can trap people in rigid routines and expectations, limiting freedom and individuality.

Exemplary prophecy

A religious approach emphasizing spiritual experiences and salvation through a withdrawal from ordinary worldly activity.

Emissary prophecy

A religious approach emphasizing actively following God's commands through ethical behavior in everyday life.

Nihilism

The idea that life may lack an ultimate meaning or foundation for moral values.

Marx

Class and economic inequality. Society is shaped by conflict between owners (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat).

-Mostly rational — people can act based on class interests

-Collectivist — focuses on classes and economic structures

Durkheim

Social order and solidarity. Shared norms, values, and institutions hold society together.

-Mostly nonrational — shared beliefs, norms, and moral forces shape behavior

-Collectivist — society and social facts shape individuals

Weber

Meaning, power, and social inequality. People’s actions have meanings; inequality involves class, status, and party.

-Both rational and nonrational — studied rational action and actions driven by values, emotion, or tradition

-Individualist — starts by understanding individuals’ meaningful actions

Gilman

Gender inequality. Women’s inequality is reinforced by economic dependence and socially created gender roles.

-Both rational and nonrational, but emphasizes how social arrangements shape behavior

Mainly collectivist — focuses on social and economic structures shaping gender roles

Du Bois

Race and racism. Racism shapes social life and identity; double consciousness describes seeing yourself through your own eyes and society’s racist gaze.

-Both rational and nonrational — considers individual experience and social forces

-Both collectivist and individualist— examines individual identity alongside racial structures and group inequali

Parsons

Social systems and stability. Society works through connected systems and roles that help maintain order (AGIL).

-Mostly nonrational — norms and values guide action

-Collectivist — emphasizes social systems and shared rules

Merton

Social structure and deviance. A gap between society’s goals and people’s access to approved means can create pressure toward deviance.

-Both rational and nonrational — people may make strategic choices, but social pressures also shape responses

-Both collectivist and individualist — connects social structures to individuals’ adaptations