02 | Cognition: Thinking, Problem-Solving, Memory & Forgetting

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

sensory memory

the immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

Short term and long term combine where brain actively processes important infro by linking new experiences with longterm memory

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects' appearance and location in space.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after rapid stimulation

explicit memory

facts we can consciously know and "declare."

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of basic information

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics

memory techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

retain information better when encoding distributed overtime

testing effect

repeated self testing to improve memory

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process conscious memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

encoding specificity principle

helps us understand how specific cues will most effectively trigger that memory

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially and the first items in a list after a delay

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one's past.

proactive interference

prior learning disrupts recall of new information

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts recall of old information

repression

basic defense mechanism that banishes painful memories to protect our ego

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

déjà vu

that eerie sense that 'I've experienced this before.' Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

George A. Miller

Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

1st to conduct studies on forgetting

Richard Shiffrin

Along with Richard Atkinson created a model to explain our memory process.

Richard Atkinson

the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (with Richard M. Shiffrin), one of the most significant advances in the study of human memory - that we process it in STM, LTM, Sensory.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

mental image or best example of a category

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

convergent thinking

narrowing solutions to determine the best solution.

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together that allow us to solve problems and make decisions effectively

algorithm

step by step procedures that guarantee a solution

heuristic

simpler thinking strategies

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a way that has been successful in the past.

intuition

an effortless immediate feeling or thought without conscious reasoning.

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they represent prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

availability heuristic

evaluate commonality of an event based on its mental availability

overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

framing

the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences according to our existing schemas.

frontal lobe

process and store new explicit memories for facts and episodes. many brain regions send input to your prefrontal cortex for working memory processing.

cerebellum

plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning.

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

amygdala

motion-related memory formation