General Biology and Chemistry of life chapters 1-2

Vocabulary flashcards covering cellular biology, evolutionary principles, domain taxonomy, gene expression, and basic chemical bonding principles based on the lecture notes.

Prokaryote Cell vs. Eukaryote Cell Diagram

A structural comparison showing that prokaryotic cells contain a nucleoid, pilus, flagellum, cell wall, plasma membrane, ribosomes, and cytoplasm, whereas eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles including a nucleus, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, and lysosome.

Cell Theory

The foundational biological theory stating that: 1. All living organisms are made of cells, and 2. The actions of all organisms are based on the function of cells.

Eukaryotic Cells

More complex cells that contain membrane-enclosed organelles, with the largest organelle usually being the nucleus.

Prokaryotic Cells

Simpler and usually smaller cells that do not contain membrane-enclosed organelles.

Gene Expression

The process of converting information from a gene into a cellular product, where DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into a protein.

Genomics

The study of whole sets of genes within and between species.

Proteomics

The study of all the proteins encoded by the genome (known as proteomes).

Bioinformatics

The use of computational tools to process large amounts of biological data.

Genome

The entire collection of genetic instructions contained within an organism.

Negative Feedback

A self-regulatory biological response in which the output or result reduces the initial stimulus.

Positive Feedback

A biological response mechanism that reinforces or increases the initial stimulus.

Taxonomy

The branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying organisms.

Three Domains of Life

The highest level of biological classification consisting of Domain Bacteria (prokaryotic), Domain Archaea (prokaryotic), and Domain Eukarya (eukaryotic).

Plantae

Multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotic organisms that carry out photosynthesis to make their own food.

Fungi

Heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that absorb nutrients from outside their bodies.

Animalia

Multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that ingest other organisms as food.

Protists

Eukaryotic organisms that are mostly unicellular (with some simple multicellular forms), including animal-like, plant-like, and fungus-like types.

Natural Selection

The mechanism responsible for descent with modification, where individuals with traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce, causing advantageous traits to become more common over generations.

Adaptation

A heritable characteristic that results from natural selection and helps an organism suit its environment (e.g., bat wings).

Homologous Structures

Structures in different species that share a similar underlying skeletal architecture (e.g., bats, humans, horses, whales) and provide evidence of common ancestry.

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into any other substances by chemical reactions.

Compound

A substance consisting of $2$ or more different elements combined.

Atom

The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element, composed of protons ($+$) in the nucleus, neutrons ($0$) in the nucleus, and electrons ($-$) in the electron cloud.

Isotope

An atom of an element that differs from another atom of the same element in its number of neutrons.

Electronegativity

An atom's attraction for electrons in a covalent bond; higher electronegativity causes an atom to pull shared electrons more strongly toward itself.

Non-polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms, resulting in no significant partial charges.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally because one atom is more electronegative, creating partial charges ($\delta-$ for slightly negative and $\delta+$ for slightly positive).

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons resulting in an electrostatic attraction between a cation and an anion.

Cation

A positively charged ion ($+$).

Anion

A negatively charged ion ($-$).

Hydrogen Bonding

A weak interaction occurring when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom.

Van der Waals Interactions

Attractions between nearby molecules resulting from temporary charge differences, which are individually weak but collectively significant.

Molecular Recognition

The phenomenon where molecules interact, recognize, and respond to one another based on shape, producing similar biological effects (e.g., morphine vs. endorphins).