History Mid term

Sovereignty

The authority of a state to govern itself or another state, recognized in the Treaty of Westphalia.

Louis XIV

Known as the Sun King, an example of an absolute monarch in France.

Intendants

Royal agents representing the king in various regions of France.

Versailles

The royal residence of Louis XIV, a symbol of absolute monarchy in France.

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher known for the concept of the social contract; believed in a strong central authority.

Rule of Law

The principle that all individuals, institutions, and entities are accountable to the law.

John Locke

Philosopher who advocated for natural rights, including life, liberty, and property.

Limited Monarchy

A governing system where a monarch's powers are restricted by a constitution or legislative body.

Magna Carta

A charter agreed in 1215 that limited the powers of the king and laid the foundation for parliamentary democracy.

Glorious Revolution

The 1688 overthrow of King James II of England, leading to the establishment of constitutional monarchy and the English Bill of Rights.

Civil Society

A society considered as a community of citizens linked by common interests and collective activity.

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority.

Rational Worldview

Perspective that stresses reason and logic as the basis for understanding the world.

Montesquieu

Philosopher known for the idea of the division of power among different branches of government.

Voltaire

Philosopher who championed free speech and separation of church and state.

Denis Diderot

Philosopher known for compiling the 'Encyclopedia,' which aimed to change the way people think.

Estates General

A general assembly representing the three estates of the realm in France.

National Assembly

The revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate in France.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by members of the National Assembly not to disband until a new constitution was established.

The Bastille

A notorious prison in Paris stormed on July 14, 1789, marking the start of the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A fundamental document of the French Revolution that proclaimed the rights of individuals.

Committee for Public Safety

Government body during the French Revolution that oversaw the Reign of Terror.

Maximilian Robespierre

Influential figure in the French Revolution; associated with the Reign of Terror and the Republic of Virtue.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution characterized by radical political upheaval and mass executions.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and established the Napoleonic Code.

Battle of Waterloo

The 1815 battle where Napoleon was defeated, ending his rule.

Congress of Vienna

Meeting of European powers in 1815 aimed at restoring order after the Napoleonic Wars.

Industrial Revolutions

Periods of significant industrial growth characterized by technological innovations.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year.

Richard Arkwright

Inventor of the factory system during the Industrial Revolution.

James Watt

Inventor known for improving the steam engine, enabling its widespread use.

Capitalism

Economic system characterized by private ownership of production and operation for profit.

Socialism

Economic system proposing collective or government ownership of production.

Labor Unions

Organizations that represent the collective interests of workers.

Nationalism

A political ideology emphasizing the interests and culture of a particular nation.

Fascism

Authoritarian political ideology characterized by dictatorial power and strong centralized government.

Holocaust

The systematic extermination of six million Jews and millions of others by the Nazi regime during World War II.

Iron Curtain

The boundary that divided Europe into two separate areas of political influence after World War II.

Containment

U.S. policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism during the Cold War.

Cuban Missile Crisis

A 1962 confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles in Cuba.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Leader of the Soviet Union who implemented policies of Glasnost and Perestroika leading to the end of the Cold War.

Maastricht Treaty

Agreement that established the European Union and led to the creation of the Euro.

Sovereignty

The supreme and independent authority of a state to govern itself, often associated with the principles established by the Treaty of Westphalia in $1648$.

Absolute Monarchs (Louis XIV)

Rulers with total power over their nations, exemplified by the "Sun King" Louis XIV, who centralized authority in France.

Intendants

Administrative officials appointed by the French crown to serve as the eyes and ears of the monarch in the provinces.

Versailles

The grand palace of Louis XIV that served as the center of French political power and a symbol of absolute monarchy.

Thomas Hobbes (Social Contract)

Philosopher who argued that people enter a social contract, sacrificing some freedoms to an absolute ruler in exchange for peace and security.

Rule of Law

The principle that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced.

John Locke (Natural Rights)

Enlightenment thinker who believed all people are born with inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.

Limited Monarchy

A system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government, such as a parliament.

Magna Carta

A document from $1215$ that limited the power of the English King and established that the monarch is not above the law.

English Civil War

A series of armed conflicts between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists ("Cavaliers") over the manner of England's governance.

Glorious Revolution

The relatively peaceful overthrow of King James II of England, leading to the English Bill of Rights and a constitutional monarchy.

The Enlightenment

An $18th$-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority.

Scientific Revolution

A period of drastic change in scientific thought during the $16th$ and $17th$ centuries, promoting a rational and empirical worldview.

Montesquieu

Philosopher known for the theory of separation of powers (executive, legislative, and judicial) to prevent tyranny.

Voltaire

Enlightenment writer and advocate for freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the separation of church and state.

Denis Diderot

Co-founder and chief editor of the Encyclopedia, which aimed to collect and spread Enlightenment knowledge.

Estates General

The French representative assembly summoned in $1789$ to address the financial crisis, consisting of the Clergy, Nobility, and Commoners.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge by the National Assembly to not disband until they had written a new constitution for France.

The Bastille

A medieval fortress and prison in Paris stormed by a mob on July $14, 1789$, marking a turning point in the French Revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A fundamental document of the French Revolution defining individual and collective rights of all the estates as universal.

Maximilian Robespierre

A leader of the Committee of Public Safety who oversaw the Reign of Terror and promoted a "Republic of Virtue."

Reign of Terror

A period ($1793-1794$) during the French Revolution characterized by mass executions of suspected "enemies of the revolution."

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who rose to power during the Revolution and established the Napoleonic Code and the Lycees system.

Continental System

Napoleon's foreign policy blockade designed to paralyze Great Britain's economy by prohibiting trade with it from neutral or allied nations.

Congress of Vienna

A meeting of European ambassadors in $1814-1815$ to restore stability and a balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.

Industrial Revolutions

Periods of rapid social and economic change involving the transition from hand production to machine manufacturing.

Adam Smith

The "father of modern economics" who authored "The Wealth of Nations" and advocated for capitalism and free markets.

Karl Marx

Philosopher and author of "The Communist Manifesto" who analyzed class struggle and advocated for socialism/communism.

Urbanization

The process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities.

Otto von Bismarck (Realpolitik)

Prussian leader who used pragmatic "Realpolitik" to unify the German states into a single nation-state.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's WWI military strategy to avoid a two-front war by invading France through neutral Belgium before attacking Russia.

Trench Warfare

A type of combat in which opposing troops fight from relatively permanent systems of excavations in the ground, causing stalemates.

Treaty of Versailles

The $1919$ peace treaty that ended WWI, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany.

Fascism & Nazism

Ultra-nationalist, authoritarian political ideologies that rose in the early $20th$ century, emphasizing state/race supremacy.

Adolf Hitler

Leader of the Nazi Party who wrote "Mein Kampf" and promoted the concepts of Rassenkampf (race struggle) and Lebensraum.

Night of Broken Glass (Kristallnacht)

A state-sponsored pogrom against Jews in Nazi Germany in $1938$, involving the destruction of homes, shops, and synagogues.

Munich Pact & Appeasement

The $1938$ agreement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland, illustrating the policy of giving in to an aggressor.

Blitzkrieg

"Lightning War"; a military tactic using mobile, maneuverable forces (tanks and air support) to achieve a rapid victory.

Holocaust

The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews and millions of others by the Nazi regime.

United Nations

An international organization founded after WWII to maintain international peace and security and develop friendly relations among nations.

Containment

The U.S. Cold War policy, including the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan, aimed at preventing the spread of communism.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization; a military alliance formed in $1949$ for collective defense against the Soviet Union.

Iron Curtain

The political, military, and ideological barrier erected by the Soviet Union after WWII to seal off itself and its allies from the West.

Berlin Wall

A guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from $1961$ to $1989$.

Glasnost & Perestroika

Policies of political "openness" and economic "restructuring" introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union.

European Union (Maastricht Treaty)

A political and economic union of European countries established in $1992$ with the goal of creating a single market and currency.