O-Level Psychology - Research Methods (Chapter 4)

Vocabulary flashcards covering all key research methods terms and definitions from Chapter 4 of the OxfordAQA O-Level Psychology course.

Experiment

A research method in which the researcher tries to control all variables other than the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV); this allows the researcher to identify a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV.

Hypothesis

A testable statement about the relationship between two variables: the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV).

Null hypothesis

A hypothesis that exists and states that no variables affect any other variables, representing a general statement that no things affect each other or nothing is happening.

Alternative hypothesis

The hypothesis the researcher tests by conducting a study and collecting data; it attempts to show the null hypothesis is not supported.

Variables

Factors or things that vary: they can change.

Independent variable (IV)

The factor that will be varied or changed in an experiment to look for an effect on the other variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

The factor that will be measured in an experiment to see if changing the independent variable (IV) has had an effect.

Conditions

The trials in an experiment into which the study is organised (usually two trials), after which the performances of the participants are compared.

Laboratory experiment

An experiment carried out in a highly controlled environment like a laboratory, where the setting is often artificial or not where people would usually produce the behaviour.

Natural experiment

An experiment in which the IV is not under the control of the researcher, occurring when the conditions of the experiment are already fixed, such as studies looking at gender or age differences.

Field experiment

An experiment carried out in a setting in which the behaviour would normally occur, while the IV is still controlled by the researcher.

Confederates

People working for the researcher who follow a scripted behaviour.

Experimental design

How the participants are used in the conditions of an experiment.

Independent groups

An experimental design where two or more separate groups of participants are used in an experiment; each group takes part in one of the conditions.

Repeated measures

An experimental design where only one group of participants is used in an experiment; this group takes part in both conditions.

Matched pairs

An experimental design where people with similar qualities are grouped into pairs; each member of the pair takes part in a different condition.

Order effect

When a participant's performance in the second condition of an experiment is affected because they have already done the first condition, such as doing better due to practice or worse due to tiredness.

Participant variables

The differences between the people who take part in a study that may affect the results of an experiment that uses an independent-groups design.

Standardised procedures

A set order for carrying out a study that is applied to all participants when necessary.

Extraneous variable (EV)

A variable that is not the IV but which might affect the DV if it is not controlled.

Instructions

The written or verbal information given to participants during an experiment.

Briefing

What is said or written to encourage a person to agree to participate, containing ethical information about consent, anonymity, and the right to withdraw.

Standardised instructions

Clear instructions given to participants about exactly what they have to do in the experiment.

Debriefing

Explaining the study in detail after the experiment so that each participant is absolutely sure of the aim and why they performed the tasks, and addressing ethical issues including the opportunity to withdraw data.

Randomisation

Using chance to provide an order for a procedure in order to make sure there are no biases.

Random allocation to conditions

A way of avoiding bias when allocating participants to the conditions of the IV, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being in either condition.

Counterbalancing

An arrangement in repeated measures design where half of the participants are given the conditions in one order (A followed by B) while the other half are given them in the opposite order (B followed by A) to share order effects equally.

Ecological validity

The extent to which the results of an investigation can be said to apply to real-life behaviour.

Target population

The large group of people the researcher wishes to study.

Sample

The small group of people who represent the target population and who are studied.

Representative

When the sample of participants is made up of people who have the same characteristics and abilities as the target population.

Sampling methods

Strategies used by researchers to obtain people from the target population to take part in their studies.

Random sampling

A sampling method that ensures every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

Opportunity sampling

A sampling method where people who are members of the target population and are available, and willing, to take part in research are selected.

Systematic sampling

A sampling method where every 'nth' member of the target population is selected for the sample.

Stratified sampling

A sampling method where different subgroups in the target population are identified, and people are then selected randomly from these subgroups in proportion to their numbers within the target population.

Survey

A method used to collect information usually from a large number of people by asking them questions, either by using a questionnaire or in an interview.

Questionnaire

A research method in which a set of standard questions about a topic is given to all the participants in the survey.

Closed question

A question where the possible responses are fixed, often as 'yes' or 'no' options.

Open question

A question where the person answering can give any response they like, designed to encourage the respondent to give detail in their answer.

Interview

A research method in which a researcher collects data by asking questions directly.

Structured interview

An interview in which all the questions are pre-set, given in a fixed order, and every interviewee is asked the same questions.

Unstructured interview

An interview in which only the first question is set and all other questions are determined by the answers of the interviewee.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, a small group, or an organisation.

Observation study

A method of collecting information about behaviour by watching and recording people's actions as they happen.

Categories of behaviour

The separate actions that are recorded as examples of the target behaviour to ensure that an accurate record of behaviour can be made.

Inter-observer reliability

How closely the record sheets of two or more people match when observing the same behaviour at the same time.

Relationship

A connection or association between two or more variables.

Correlation

A statistical technique used by researchers to establish the strength of a relationship or association between two variables.

Scatter diagram

A type of graph for representing correlations where pairs of scores are plotted as intersecting points.

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which, as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable also increases.

Negative correlation

A relationship between two variables in which, as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases.

No correlation

A situation where there is no relationship between two variables.

Prediction

A statement about what will happen, made before the event occurs.

Ethical issues

Points of concern about what is morally right.

British Psychological Society (BPS) guidelines

The ethical guidelines produced by the British Psychological Society in its Code of Ethics and Conduct (2021) and Code of Human Research Ethics (2021), which govern the work of all practising and research psychologists in the UK.

Quantitative data

Data in numerical form, such as scores or times taken to do a task.

Qualitative data

Data in descriptive (non-numerical) form, such as verbal or written answers to questions, or observed behaviour.

Primary data

Data collected firsthand from the source (participants), by the researcher.

Secondary data

Data that are already published or available and just used, rather than gathered by the researcher.

Mean

The sum of all numerical values divided by their number (arithmetic mean).

Median

The middle value in a set of values after the values are arranged in ascending order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a set of values.

Range

The difference between the lowest and highest values in a set of values.

Significant figures

The number of figures chosen to display data.

Estimate

When figures are rounded to make the calculation simpler, which makes the answer roughly, but not exactly, right.

Bar chart

A type of graph that is used to display data from different categories, with separate bars that do not touch.

Frequency table

A way of displaying data that shows how often something occurs by organising raw data into sensible groups.

Histogram

A type of graph that is used to display continuous data with no spaces between the bars.

Normal distribution

An arrangement of data in which most values group in the middle of the range and the rest taper off symmetrically towards each end, forming a characteristic bell curve where the mean, median, and mode are very similar.

Reliability

The consistency of a study or the measuring device, such as a test or scale, used in a study.

Validity

The extent to which a study or measuring device actually does what it claims to be doing.