AP Psych Topics 1.1 - 1.4B

Brain Plasticity

the brain is able to wire and rewire its synaptic connections in response to new situations, info, and environmental stimuli

- adapts and modifies itself

Neurogenesis

a process through which the brain creates new neurons throughout life

- promoted by sleep and exercise

Hemispherectomy

removing the right hemisphere of the brain - > young people can recover easier than older because neurogenesis slows with age

Long-term potential (LTP)

a repetitive process in which new neural networks are formed by triggering the same sequence of neurons repeatedly to create fast and more efficient pathways

- persistent strengthening of neural synapses based on frequent activity

Corpus Callosum

a thick bundle of nerves that link the two hemispheres of the brain -> allows them to interact

Split-brain

when one's corpus callosum is severed during a procedure to control epileptic seizures

- studies of patients deduced that the left-hemisphere holds language capability and the right for spatial awareness

Lateralization

the two hemispheres have some specialized functions

Right hemisphere

better at visual, spatial, artistic, and musical tastes

- able to draw picture of word but not say it

Left hemisphere

center for mathematical, logical, analytical, and linguistic abilities

Association Area

areas without a particularly specialized function; make up most of forebrain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

involves placing electrodes on the skull to identify electrical activity in parts of the brain

- does not provide an image -> used in sleep studies to identify brain waves and to diagnose seizure disorders

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

used to identify issues with brain structure

- black and white scan used to identify blood clots or tumors in the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

places individuals in a tube with strong magnetic forces to take atoms out of normal rotation and obtains an image when they return (those with metal can not do)

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

requires a non-harmful injection of a radioactive substance to trace the metabolism of glucose -> as patient performs tasks, glucose flows to different parts of the brain

Functional MRI

shows both structure and function of different brain regions; like MRI but also shows where brain oxygen levels change during tasks

Brain is divided into:

the hindbrain, the midbrain, the forebrain

Hindbrain

includes the medulla, pons, reticular formation, and cerebellum

Brainstem

comprised of the pons and the medulla -> contributes to survival and directs incoming messages to the opposite hemisphere

(hindbrain)

Medulla

located below the point at which the brainstem enters the brain

- helps to control breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood circulation, and digestion

(hindbrain)

Pons (pillows)

located above the medulla on the slightly larger swell of the brainstem

- play a role in sleep and sleeping; serves as a bridge between brain and brainstem

(hindbrain)

Cerebellum

"little brain"

- located at the bottom rear of the brain just below the occipital lobe

- associated with balance, coordination, and smooth muscle movement

(hindbrain)

Reticular formation (cheerleader)

a network of neurons that extends from the hindbrain into the midbrain and runs vertically on the interior of the brainstem

- controls alertness and attention to incoming stimuli; acts as a sensory filter to determine which incoming info will reach the cerebral cortex

(hindbrain)

Midbrain

receives and integrates many types of sensory information

- bridge between the hindbrain, which maintains basic life functions and more recently evolved parts of the forebrain which are involved with sensory integration, complex thought, and decision making

Forebrain

composed of many different part

Limbic system

made up of hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus

- thought of as the seat of emotion and basic primal motivation

Hippocampus

responsible for the formation of new memories and the transfer from the short-term to long-term activities

-dysfunction: Alzheimer's and anterograde amnesia

Limbic System Forebrain

Amygdala

associated with basic emotional responses such as fear and anger and the evaluation of emotionally relevant information such as flashbulb memories

-afraid, anger, aggression

Limbic System Forebrain

Thalamus

sits atop midbrain

- sorts and relays sensory information (except smell) to the appropriate areas for further evaluation

Limbic System Forebrain

Hypothalamus

just below thalamus, base of brain

- helps regulate four f's: feeding, fleeing, fighting, mating

- also plays role in appetite, thirst, sex drive, sleep/wake cycle, body temp

- converts short-term memory to long-term

Limbic System Forebrain

Cerebral Cortex

outside layer of the cerebrum allows for millions more neural connections

Frontal lobes

largest lobes in the human brain, sets humans ahead in ability to plan for the future

- also plays role in speech and motor activity

Motor Cortex

rear of frontal lobe

- responsible for voluntary muscle movement

Broca's area

left frontal lobe

- plays a role in speech production (output)

Broca's Aphasia

caused by damage to Broca -> aphasia is inability to understand or express speech

Parietal lobes

behind frontal lobes

- govern incoming sensory information regarding touch, temp, and pain

Somatosensory Cortex

front of parietal lobe

- evaluates incoming sensory info from skin

Occipital lobe

rear or forebrain; houses primary visual cortex

- associated with processing of visual information

Temporal lobe

sides of brain, above ears; house the auditory cortexes

- contain olfactory cortex (essential to sense of smell)

Wernicke's area

left temporal lobes

- play a role in speech comprehension (input)

Wernicke's aphasia

damage to wernicke's area; causes difficulty responding due to not being able to understand what is being said or asked of them

Psychoactive Drug

a chemical substance that acts on the brain to impact behavior, perceptions, moods, or mental processes

Blood-brain barrier (BBB)

blocks certain material in the blood from entering brain tissues

-> semi permeable membrane between blood and interstitial of brain

Substance use disorders

the persistent use of drugs despite substantial harm and adverse consequences to self and others

Characteristics of dependence

tolerance, addiction, physical dependence, psychological dependence, withdrawal

Tolerance

results in the need for greater amount of the drug to experience initial effects

Addiction

state of psychological and or physical dependence on drugs or other substances

Physical dependence

user has intense cravings and a biological need for the drug

- need to alleviate pain

Psychological dependence

spend time thinking about next high

- need to use drug for relieving mental stress

Withdrawal

painful side effects that occur after the end of long term use

- body may produce less neurotransmitters that were supplemented by the drug

Depressants

slow nervous system activity

ex: alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

Alcohol

acts as a depressant on the frontal lobe reducing inhibitions and slurred speech (Broca's area)

- GABA agonist (mimics GABA)

Barbiturates

Downers, GABA agonist

- often used to treat insomnia, can interfere with sleep patterns and cause dependence

Opiates

suppress pain and induce sleep while also producing a sate of euphoria

ex: opium, morphine, oxycodone, heroine

- endorphins agonist

Hallucinogens

alter one's perceptions, causing dramatic hallucinations

ex: LSD, PCP, THC (marijuana), MDMA (ecstasy)

LSD

produces hallucination and delusions similar to a psychotic state

- can result in psychosis, memory loss, paranoia, panic attacks, nightmares and aggression

THC

the active ingredient in marijuana, produces mild hallucinations, euphoria, relaxation

-long term use can shrink areas of the brain associated with memory and emotions

-cannabinoid agonist

Stimulants

activate the nervous system and essentially increase levels of arousal and activity while suppressing appetite

-ex: nicotine (tobacco), caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines

Caffeine

increases alertness, can cause anxiety, heart palpitations, insomnia, and diarrhea

Nicotine

Acetylcholine agonist, boosts release of dopamine

arousal - boosts alertness and mental efficiency

calming effect - reduces anxiety and sensitivity to pain

Amphetamines

chemically similar to epinephrine, increased alertness and sense of well-being

-can cause euphoria followed by a crash of severe depression

MDMA (ecstacy)

stimulant and mild hallucinogen

- produces a euphoric high and can damage serotonin producing neurons resulting in a permanent deflation of mood and impairment of memory

Cocaine

- blocks reabsorption of dopamine (dopamine agonist)

- produces increased alertness, motivation, and euphoria

- crash leads to depression, anxiety, and strong cravings

Substance use vs abuse

use = using a substance that does not yet interfere with a person's life

abuse = pattern of drug use that diminishes one's ability to fulfill responsibilities

Dependence Criteria

Need 4 out of 7

- developing a tolerance

- experiencing withdrawal

- using for longer period or in greater quantities than needed

- presence of a desire or repeated attempts to cut back on use

- spending a lot of time obtaining/using substance

- reduction/cessation of usual activities

- repeated use despite knowing it causes harm

Neurons

the building blocks of the nervous system -> about 100 billion

Dendrites

branch-like projections that receive messages from other neurons and send them to the neuron

Soma

(cell body) structure made up of a nucleus that determines when the neuron has reached the threshold to fire

- also carries out basic metabolic functions of neurons

Axon

the "tail" of the neuron along which electrical signals are conducted

- passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

Action Potentials

the electrical signals created by Axon -> carry messages to neutrons

- neuron is depolarized -> positive inside of cell for a moment

Myelin Sheath

white fatty substance that wraps axons -> insulates the axon and inscreases the speed ofthe action potential causing faster communication

-deterioration leads to motor/cognitive impairments

Axon Terminals

knobs at the end of each axon that house chemical messengers called neurotransmitters (terminal buttons)

Synapse

the microscopic gap between terminal buttons of the presynaptic (sending) neuron and the dendrites of the postsynaptic (receiving) neuron

Glial cells

support cells that hold together the message - sending neurons and support their functioning -> provide nutrients

-"glue" neurons in place, form myelin around axons

Resting state

when a neuron is in resting state -> it has a slight negative charge due to presence of potassium ions

- it is positive outside of resting state

Firing threshold

the minimum level of membrane depolarization for a neuron or muscle cell to generate action potential

- level necessary for neuron to fire

Depolarization

positively charged sodium ions rush into the cell and potassium ions flow out temporarily leaving cell positively charged on inside

All-or-none response

a neuron can never fire "harder" or "stronger" because it either fires completely or not at all

Refractory period

the cell cannot fire again -> very brief (rest period)

- process of repolarization

Repolarization

each section of the axon needs to "push out" the positive sodium ions so the overall charge of the cell becomes negative again

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that allow for communication between neurons

- travel across synapes to bind to receptor sites

Vesicles (sacs)

sacs of terminal buttons (axon transmitters) at the end of the axon

Postsynaptic neuron

a nerve cell that receives neurons from another neuron (presynaptic)

Reuptake

the absorption by a presynaptic nerve ending of a neurotransmitter that it has secreted

Antagonist

dugs that inhibit or impede the action of a neurotransmitter

Agonist

drugs that inhace or amplify the action of a neurotransmitter

Lock and key

a specific neurotransmitter (key) binds only to its corresponding receptor protein (lock) on a postsynaptic neuron

Excitatory signal

excitatory neurotransmitter signals trigger action

- like a gas pedal

Inhibitory signal

inhibitory neurotransmitter signals depress action

- break pedals

Substance P

sends pain messages

- P is for pain "substance pain"

Serotonin

impacts mood, sleep, and appetite

- too much = maybe autism and anxiety

- too little = depression, OCD and eds

se"rot"onin -> rotten mood

Norepinephrine

involved in alertness and arousal of flight/fight - helps breathing, stimulates heart rate and constricts blood vessels

- too much = anxiety and panic attacks

- too little = depression

"Epi-pen"

Acetylcholine (ACH)

enables muscle action, influences memory-linked to alzheimers

"in order to hit an ACE in tennis you need good muscle control"

GABA

primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

- too little = insomnia

- too much = seizures

"Get A Brake Adjustment"

Glutamate

primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

too much = seizures and migranes

"you get excited when you're glued to your mate"

Endorphins

block pain messages and linked to pleasure

- opiates are essentially artificial endorphins

ENDURE pain

Dopamine

associated with pleasurable emotions, reward pathways, learning and attention and movement

too little = Parkinson's disease

too much = schizophrena

"Dopey on Dopamine"

genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

the observable characteristics of an organism that results from gene and the environment

Genetic Determinism

eye color, hair color, ear shape are genetically determined

Genetic Predisposition

theres a genetic "push" or inclination in a certain direction but no genetic certainty