Grammar & Syntax

Syntax Definition

Teilgebiet der Linguistik, das sich mit der Struktur von Sätzen und der Kombination von Wörtern zu größeren Einheiten beschäftigt.

Zentrale Frage: Wie werden Wörter zu Phrasen und Sätzen organisiert?

Wordclasses: Lexical word classes

• Nouns

• Verbs

• Adjectives

• Adverbs

Wordclasses: Autosemantic vs. synsemantic

Autosemantische Wörter
→ tragen eigenständige lexikalische Bedeutung
→ benötigen keinen zusätzlichen Kontext
Beispiele: Nomen, Vollverben, Adjektive, Adverbien

Synsemantische Wörter
→ haben v. a. grammatische Funktion
→ Bedeutung nur im Kontext
Beispiele: Artikel, Präpositionen, Pronomen, Hilfsverben

Lexical word classes: Nouns

• proper nouns: Sarah, Mike → names

• abstract nouns: opinion → cant see or feel them

• concrete nouns: son, boy → see them

Lexical word classes: Verbs

a) Full verbs → tragen Hauptbedeutung (z. B. smile, pop, lose)

1. Hilfsverben (Auxiliaries) → grammatische Funktionen (Tempus, Fragebildung etc.) Beispiele: be, have, do (primary verbs)

1.2 Modalverben → Modalität (Möglichkeit, Notwendigkeit) Beispiele: will, can

b) Transitive verbs → Verben, die ein direktes Objekt benötigen, um eine vollständige Bedeutung zu haben.
→ Subjekt + transitives Verb + Objekt → lost (to lose sth.), popped (to pop); She read a book.

Intransitive verbs → Verben, die kein Objekt benötigen → smiled (to smile); He sleeps.

copula verbs → Verben, die das Subjekt mit einer Subjekt-Ergänzung (subject complement) verbinden. → drücken Zustand/Identität aus, keine Handlung → was, am, be; She is happy

c) Finite verb forms → nach Person, Numerus und Tempus flektiert, stehen als Hauptverb im Satz und können allein ein Prädikat bilden: was am, have, do, smiled, popped

Non-finite verb forms → nicht flektiert, können nicht alleine stehen: Infinitiv, Gerund (going), Partizip(gone, going); to come across, lost, be

Lexical word classes: Adjectives

1.

• attributiv (vor Nomen)

• prädikativ (nach Kopulaverb)

2.

• Gradable adjectives: steigerbar → können mit very, quite, extremely usw. verwendet werden. big, happy, cold

• Ungradable adjectives: keine Abstufung (absolute Bedeutung) → nicht mit very, ect. verwendbar. perfect, dead, unique

Lexical word classes: Adverbs

Modifizieren Verben, Adjektive oder ganze Sätze.

Adverb modifying a verb
→ describes how an action is done

• She sings beautifully.
  (beautifully modifies the verb sings)

Adverb modifying an adjective
→ changes intensity of adjective

• The movie is very interesting.
  (very modifies the adjective interesting)

Adverb modifying another adverb
→ changes intensity of another adverb

• He runs very quickly.
  (very modifies the adverb quickly)

Adverb modifying a whole sentence (sentence adverb)
→ comments on the entire statement

• Unfortunately, we missed the bus.
  (unfortunately modifies the whole sentence)

Grammatical word classes: Articles

definite articles: the

indefinite articles: an, a

Grammatical word classes: Pronouns

• Personal pronouns: I, you, he/she/it, we, they

• Possessive pronouns vs. possessive adjectives: Mine, yours, hers/his/its, ours, theirs vs. My, your, her/his/its, our, their

• Object pronouns: Replaces the object in a sentence (She gave me the book.)

• Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative adjective: this, that, these, those; adjectives stand before the noun, pronouns replace them (This car is fast, this is fast.)

Grammatical word classes: Auxiliaries

1. Hilfsverben (Auxiliaries) → grammatische Funktionen (Tempus, Fragebildung etc.) Beispiele: be, have, do (primary verbs)

Grammatical word classes: Prepositions

Funktionswörter, die Beziehungen zwischen Satzteilen ausdrücken und Präpositionalphrasen einleiten.

Grammatical word classes: Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that join words, phrases, or clauses together in a sentence. There are two main types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions: These connect words or groups of words that are similar (e.g., "and," "but," "or").

2. Subordinating Conjunctions: These connect a dependent clause to an independent clause (e.g., "because," "although," "since”).

Phrases

• NP: Noun phrases - The cat…

• VP: Verb phrases - moved, felt ill, disappeared quickly…

• PP: Preposition phrases: into bed, in the taxi…

• AP: Adverb phrases: quite slowly…

• AdjP: Adjective phrases: very happy…

Structural ambiguity: Form vs. Function

• Form: Welche Kategorie hat ein Ausdruck? (Wortart / Phrasentyp, z.B. NP, VP, PP).

• Funktion: Welche Rolle spielt er im Satz? (z.B. Subjekt, Objekt, Prädikat, Adverbial).

Beispiele:

• the cat → Form: NP, Funktion: Subjekt.

• into bed → Form: PP, Funktion: Adverbial (Ort/Richtung).

• got into bed → Form: VP, Funktion: Prädikat.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words containing at least a subject and a finite verb.
It forms a unit of sentence structure and expresses a proposition.

Example:

• She studies linguistics. → subject + finite verb = clause

Main clause: can stand alone as a sentence.
Subordinate clause: cannot stand alone and is syntactically dependent on a main clause.

Main clause (independent clause)

A main clause is a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence.
It expresses a complete thought and does not depend on another clause.

Features:

• contains subject + finite verb

• grammatically independent

• can form a full sentence

Examples:

• She is tired.

• They went home.

• I like syntax.

A sentence can contain more than one main clause:

• She was tired, but she finished her work.

Subordinate clause (dependent clause)

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a full sentence and depends on a main clause.
It functions as part of the main clause.

Features:

• has subject + finite verb

• grammatically dependent

• introduced by subordinators (e.g. because, although, that, if, who)

Examples:

• because she was tired

• that he likes linguistics

• when they arrived

Used with main clause:

• She went home because she was tired.

• I think that he is right.

Sentences

Definition: Grammatische Einheit bestehend aus mindestens Subjekt und Prädikat.

Satztypen

• Deklarativsatz (Aussage)

• Interrogativsatz (Frage)

• Imperativsatz (Befehl)

• Exklamativsatz (Ausruf)

Agreement

Agreement (also called concord) is the grammatical relationship where one element in a sentence must match another in features such as number, person, gender, or tense.

Most important in English: subject–verb agreement.

Agreement shows the grammatical relationship between elements in a clause and helps identify:

• subject

• finite verb

• clause structure

Grammatical relations/functions: Subject

The subject is the clause element that typically refers to the doer or topic of the clause and agrees with the finite verb.

Form, Subjekte sind meist:

• Noun phrases (NP) → The student reads.

• Pronouns → She reads.

• manchmal clauses → What he said is interesting.

Position

Declarative sentences:
→ normalerweise vor dem finite verb

• The student reads syntax.

Questions:
→ nach dem auxiliary (subject–aux inversion)

• Does the student read syntax?

• Is she happy?

Optional oder obligatorisch?

Declarative clauses:
→ subject ist obligatorisch im Englischen

• ❌ Is raining

• ✔ It is raining (dummy subject “it”)

Questions:
→ subject ebenfalls obligatorisch

• Is she coming?

Agreement

Subject bestimmt die Form des finite verb (number & person).

• She runs

• They run

Grammatical relations/functions: Objects

Direct Object (DO)

Element directly affected by the action of a transitive verb.

Form: meist NP

• She reads a book.

Frageprobe: What? / Whom?
→ What does she read? → a book

Indirect Object (IO)

Entity that receives something or benefits from the action.

Position:

1. IO vor DO

She gave him a book.

1. mit Präposition to/for

   • She gave a book to him.

IO = Empfänger
DO = Sache

Grammatical relations/functions: Subject Complement

Follows a copula verb (be, seem, become).
Describes or identifies subject.

• She is happy.

• He became a teacher.

Kann sein:

• adjective phrase

• noun phrase

Grammatical relations/functions: Object Complement

Gibt zusätzliche Information über das Objekt.

• They elected him president.

• She painted the door red.

Beschreibt Objekt, nicht Subjekt

Grammatical relations/functions: Predicate

The predicate is everything in the clause except the subject.
Contains the verb and all complements/objects.

Beispiel:

• The student reads a book in the library

Subject = the student
Predicate = rest des Satzes

Grammatical relations/functions: Adverbials

Optional elements that give extra information about circumstances (time, place, manner etc.).
Nicht obligatorisch für grammatische Vollständigkeit.

Adverbial of place

→ Wo?

• She studies in the library.

Adverbial of time

→ Wann?

• She studies every day.

Adverbial of manner

→ Wie?

• She studies carefully.

Instrumental adverbial

→ Womit?

• He cut the bread with a knife.

Voice

Voice beschreibt das Verhältnis zwischen Verb, Handelndem (agent) und Betroffenem (patient) in einem Satz.
Es zeigt, wer die Handlung ausführt und wer betroffen ist.

Haupttypen:

Active: subject = agent
Passive: subject = patient
Agent: führt Handlung aus
Patient: betroffen
Monotransitive: 1 Objekt
Ditransitive: 2 Objekte
Mediopassive: aktiv form, passiv meaning

Voice: Active voice

In der active voice ist das Subjekt der Handelnde (agent) und führt die Handlung aus.

Struktur:
Subject (agent) + verb + object (patient)

Beispiele:

• The student writes the essay.

• She opened the door.

→ Subjekt = Handelnder
→ Objekt = betroffen

Voice: Passive voice

In der passive voice wird der patient zum Subjekt des Satzes.
Der Handelnde (agent) ist unwichtig, unbekannt oder optional.

Struktur:
Patient → wird Subjekt
be + past participle (+ by-agent optional)

Beispiele:

• The essay was written (by the student).

• The door was opened.

Merkmale:

• Fokus auf Handlung/Ergebnis

• agent kann weggelassen werden

• Bildung: form of be + past participle

Voice: Agent and patient

Agent: Die Entität, die eine Handlung aktiv ausführt.

Beispiel:
The chef cooked the meal.
→ agent = the chef

Patient: Die Entität, die von der Handlung betroffen ist oder sie empfängt.

Beispiel:
The chef cooked the meal.
→ patient = the meal

Voice: Monotransitive Verbs

Ein monotransitives Verb nimmt genau ein direktes Objekt.

Struktur:
Subject + verb + direct object

Beispiele:

• She reads a book.

• He opened the door.

→ ein Objekt = direct object

Voice: Ditransitive Verbs

Ein ditransitives Verb nimmt zwei Objekte:

• direct object

• indirect object

Struktur:
Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

Beispiele:

• She gave him a book.

• They sent her a letter.

Alternative:

• She gave a book to him.

Voice: Passive mit ditransitiven Verben

Bei ditransitiven Verben können zwei verschiedene Passive entstehen:

Aktiv:
She gave him a book.

Passiv 1 (IO wird Subjekt):
He was given a book.

Passiv 2 (DO wird Subjekt):
A book was given to him.

Voice: Mediopassive (Middle voice)

Form sieht aktiv aus, Bedeutung ist passiv.
Subjekt ist Patient, aber kein sichtbarer Agent.

Beispiele:

• This book sells well.

• The door opens easily.

Niemand wird genannt, der die Handlung ausführt.
→ Fokus auf Eigenschaft des Objekts

Definition (exam):
The mediopassive is a construction that has active form but passive meaning, where the subject is affected by the action without an expressed agent.