Introduction to Psychology: Learning, Cognition, and Personality

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering classical and operant conditioning, cognitive problem-solving, intelligence theories, developmental stages, and personality psychology.

Schema

A mental construct consisting of a collection of related concepts, described metaphorically as the "brain with a bunch of folders."

Assimilation

The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing, known, or familiar schemas.

Accommodation

The cognitive process of revising existing schemas or creating entirely new schemas in response to new information.

Piaget's Stages of Development

Jean Piaget's developmental framework comprising the Sensorimotor stage ($0-2$ years; learning through senses and actions), Preoperational stage ($2-7$ years; language, symbolic thought, egocentrism), Concrete Operational stage ($7-11$ years; logical thinking about concrete events and conservation), and Formal Operational stage ($12+$ years; abstract thought and moral reasoning).

Reflexes

Motor or neural reactions to a specific stimulus that are unlearned, hard-wired actions present from birth.

Instincts

Innate, unlearned behaviors triggered by a broader range of events (such as aging or changes in seasons), encompassing complex behaviors like sexual activity and migration.

Associative Learning

A form of learning where an organism makes connections between environmental stimuli or events, allowing it to predict outcomes.

Classical Conditioning

A behaviorist learning process by which an organism learns to associate stimuli and consequently anticipates events.

Acquisition

The initial period of learning in classical conditioning during which an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US).

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented alongside the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a period of rest.

Habituation

Learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning based on the law of effect where an organism learns to associate a voluntary behavior with its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Positive Reinforcement

An operant conditioning procedure where a pleasant stimulus is added to increase the likelihood of a target behavior (e.g., getting good grades or paychecks).

Negative Reinforcement

An operant conditioning procedure where an unpleasant stimulus is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., buckling a seatbelt to stop a beeping chime).

Positive Punishment

An operant conditioning procedure where an unpleasant stimulus is added to decrease the likelihood of an undesired behavior (e.g., scolding a student for texting in class).

Negative Punishment

An operant conditioning procedure where a pleasant stimulus is removed to decrease the likelihood of an undesired behavior (e.g., taking away a toy from a toddler for hitting a sibling).

Shaping

An operant conditioning method where successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced rather than only rewarding the final completed behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule where an organism receives a reinforcer every single time it displays a behavior; the quickest method to teach a new behavior.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Intermittent reinforcement schedules categorized by time passed (interval schedules) or number of responses (ratio schedules), which can be either fixed or variable.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is delivered after an exact, predictable amount of time has elapsed (e.g., studying for a weekly quiz or getting paid every two weeks).

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after varying, unpredictable amounts of time (e.g., checking email).

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is delivered after a fixed, predictable number of responses (e.g., receiving one free meal after the purchase of ten).

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, varying number of responses (e.g., playing the lottery).

Cognitive Map

A mental picture or representation of the spatial layout of an environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately observable until there is an incentive to demonstrate it, demonstrated by Edward C. Tolman.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura's observational learning framework detailing the four essential steps to modeling behavior: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.

Vicarious Learning

Learning that occurs indirectly by observing the consequences (reinforcements or punishments) experienced by someone else.

Role Schema

A mental construct that makes assumptions about how individuals in certain social roles will behave (e.g., typical assumptions about a librarian).

Event Schema (Cognitive Script)

A set of routine, automatic behaviors that are difficult to alter because of their automaticity (e.g., texting while driving).

Algorithm

A step-by-step problem-solving formula or instruction manual that guarantees a correct outcome when followed methodically.

Heuristic

A general problem-solving framework or mental shortcut used when faced with excessive information, limited time, or an unimportant decision.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias and problem-solving obstacle where an individual is unable to see an object being used for anything other than its most common intended purpose.

Mental Sets

The tendency to approach a problem by persisting in using a previous strategy that worked in the past, even when a different strategy is required.

Decision Aversion

A state of psychological reluctance or hesitation to choose among available options.

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that because an event has occurred less frequently in the recent past, it is more likely to happen in upcoming attempts.

Confirmation Bias

The cognitive bias of seeking out, interpreting, and focusing only on information that supports one's existing beliefs.

Anchoring Bias

The tendency to fixate or overly rely on a single initial piece of information when making decisions.

Availability Heuristic

The tendency to make a decision or judgment based on an easily remembered example, recent experience, or immediate information.

Prototype

An item, person, or event considered to be the most typical example or central representation of a category.

Range of Reaction

The theory that each person's unique genetic makeup sets boundaries on their potential, responding uniquely to environmental factors.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Bell Curve

A normal distribution curve of intelligence test scores with an average score of $100$, where approximately $82\%$ of the population scores between $85$ and $115$, calculated historically as $\frac{\text{mental age}}{\text{chronological age}} \times 100$.

Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell's term for acquired knowledge, facts, and learned skills retrieved from previous experience.

Fluid Intelligence

Raymond Cattell's term for the capacity to think logically, solve novel problems, and process new information independently of acquired knowledge.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner's model proposing distinct intelligences beyond general IQ, including musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, naturalistic, intrapersonal, and visual-spatial intelligences.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's intelligence theory identifying three distinct forms: Practical (street smarts and common sense), Creative (innovative problem solving), and Analytical (academic computation).

Divergent Thinking

The capacity to think "outside the box" and generate multiple unique, novel ideas or solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

The cognitive ability to narrow down ideas to provide a single correct, conventional answer.

Savant Syndrome

A rare condition characterized by an extraordinary combination of genius or exceptional skill in a specific domain coupled with significant neurodevelopmental or intellectual impairments, frequently co-occurring with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche

Sigmund Freud's iceberg metaphor of the mind illustrating the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels divided across the Id, Ego, and Superego.

Id

The primitive, completely unconscious personality component present from birth that houses basic biological needs, impulses, and aggressive or sexual drives.

Ego

The realistic, decision-making component of personality that functions as an executive, balancing the desires of the id, the constraints of the superego, and external reality.

Superego

The moral component of the personality that incorporates societal and parental ethics, rules, and ideals, operating as an internal moral conscience.

Denial

A Freudian defense mechanism characterized by refusing to accept or acknowledge real facts, events, or experiences that produce overwhelming anxiety.

Regression

A defense mechanism where an individual under stress reverts to emotional or behavioral patterns of an earlier, safer developmental stage.

Repression

An unconscious defense mechanism that pushes distressing thoughts, traumatic memories, and unacceptable impulses out of conscious awareness.

Displacement

A defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from their original, threatening source onto a safer, less threatening target.

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism whereby an individual adopts feelings, behaviors, or impulses that are the direct opposite of their true, unacceptable unconscious desires.

Projection

A defense mechanism in which a person attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, motives, or feelings onto someone else.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective psychological test where a person interprets a series of symmetrical inkblot cards, revealing their unconscious feelings, desires, and conflicts through projection.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's eight-stage lifespan theory progressing from infancy to late adulthood: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a universal layer of unconscious mind that contains shared memories and archetypes common to all human beings.

Persona

Carl Jung's term for the conscious, public mask or facade an individual adopts to interact with society.

Basic Anxiety

Karen Horney's term for the pervasive, deep feeling of loneliness, isolation, and helplessness a child develops when raised in an unsupportive, neglectful, or hostile home.

Internal Locus of Control

Julian Rotter's concept describing the belief that one's life outcomes, successes, and failures are the direct consequence of one's own efforts, actions, and decisions.

External Locus of Control

Julian Rotter's concept describing the belief that life's outcomes are controlled by environmental factors, luck, chance, fate, or powerful others.

Barnum Effect

The cognitive bias where individuals believe that generic, universally true personality descriptions apply uniquely and specifically to themselves.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's personal beliefs and expectations regarding their capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific task.

Five Factor Model (OCEAN)

A trait personality theory that evaluates individuals along five core dimensions: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Somatotypes

William H. Sheldon's physiological theory proposing that body type correlates with personality traits: Endomorphs (round/relaxed), Mesomorphs (athletic/assertive), and Ectomorphs (thin/introverted).

Temperament

Biologically based, innate emotional and behavioral tendencies that appear early in life, characterized by the dimensions of reactivity and self-regulation.