The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory

Vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts, anatomical structures, and methods in the neuroscience of learning and memory.

Neuroscience

The study of the brain and the rest of the nervous system.

Nervous System

The organ system devoted to the distribution and processing of signals that affect biological functions throughout the body.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system that transmits signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system and carries commands from the CNS to muscles.

Neuron

A special type of cell that serves as one of the main components of the nervous system.

Cerebral Cortex

The brain tissue covering the top and sides of the brain in most vertebrates; involved in storage and processing of sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Frontal Lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the front of the human brain; enables a person to plan and perform actions.

Parietal Lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the human brain; important for processing somatosensory (touch) inputs.

Temporal Lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the sides of the human brain; important for language and auditory processing, as well as learning new facts and forming new memories of events.

Occipital Lobe

The part of the cerebral cortex lying at the rear of the human brain; important for visual processing.

Cerebellum

A brain region lying below the cerebral cortex in the back of the head, responsible for the regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular movement, including classical conditioning of motor-reflex responses.

Brainstem

A group of structures that connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord and plays key roles in regulating automatic functions such as breathing and body temperature.

Subcortical Memory Structures

Structures located near the center of the human brain—including the basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala—that contribute to learning and memory in distinct ways.

Phrenology

A technique developed by Franz Joseph Gall that used skull measurements to predict an individual's personality and abilities based on the idea that cortical region sizes reflect individual character or ability.

Structural Neuroimaging

A collective term for modern techniques used to create pictures of anatomical structures within the brain, revealing details of brain tissue and brain lesions.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A method of structural neuroimaging based on recording changes in magnetic fields.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

A specialized type of MRI that measures connections between different brain regions.

Dendrites

Input areas of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Cell Body (Soma)

The part of a neuron that integrates incoming signals from the dendrites.

Axon

A neuronal structure that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons.

Glia

Cells of various types that provide functional or structural support to neurons, with some contributing to changes in connections between neurons.

Astrocytes

Types of glial cells that line the outer surface of blood vessels in the brain.

Oligodendrocytes

Glial cells that wrap the axons of nearby neurons in myelin.

Myelin

A fatty substance wrapped around axons that insulates electrical signals transmitted by neurons.

Imprinting

A form of learning in which a newborn animal forms a lifelong attachment to whatever movements it views early on.

Environmental Enrichment

Providing animals with increased opportunities for learning, social interactions, and exercise, which leads to visible structural changes in neurons.

Hebbian Learning

Learning that involves strengthening connections between neurons that work together as an automatic result of their mutual activity.

Reflex

An involuntary and automatic response that is hardwired into an organism.

Primary Visual Cortex (V1)

The specialized region of the cerebral cortex dedicated to processing light and visual inputs.

Primary Motor Cortex (M1)

A region of the cortex specialized for generating outputs that control movements, receiving much of its input from the frontal lobes.

Functional Neuroimaging

Techniques that allow researchers to observe the function or activity of a living brain by tracking local changes in blood flow or oxygen usage.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A functional neuroimaging technology that tracks brain activity by measuring differences in blood oxygen levels.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A method for measuring electrical activity in the brain using scalp electrodes to record an electroencephalogram.

Event-Related Potential (ERP)

An electroencephalogram (EEG) measure created by averaging recordings from a single individual across multiple repetitions of a specific event.

Neurophysiology

The scientific study of the activity and function of neurons.

Single-Cell Recording

A neurophysiological technique using an implanted electrode to detect electrical activity (spiking) in an individual cell.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

A condition characterized by an extraordinary ability to recall personal past events, engaging heightened activity in prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and frontal-parietal cortical junction.

Neuropsychology

The branch of psychology dealing with the relationship between brain function and behavior, often through studying patients with specific brain lesions or damage.

Engram

The physical change in the brain that forms the basis of a memory; also referred to as a memory trace.

Theory of Equipotentiality

The theory proposed by Karl Lashley stating that memories are not stored in one specific brain area, but rather the brain operates as a whole to store memories.

Synapse

A narrow gap of approximately $20\,\text{nm}$ separating communicating neurons across which chemicals are passed.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances stored in presynaptic neurons that cross the synaptic gap to influence postsynaptic neuronal activity.

Receptors

Specialized molecules embedded in the postsynaptic neuron membrane that bind to and respond to specific neurotransmitters.

Neuromodulator

A neurotransmitter that acts to modulate activity across a large ensemble of neurons rather than at a single synapse.

Synaptic Plasticity

The capacity of synapses to change their strength or structure as a result of experience.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, increasing the effectiveness of synaptic transmission.

Long-Term Depression (LTD)

A process in which synaptic transmission becomes less effective as a result of recent activity.

Homunculus

A surface map of the primary motor cortex (M1) illustrating which subregions control specific parts of the body.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive technique that modulates cortical activity by delivering strong magnetic pulses through the scalp.

Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation (tDCS)

A method that alters neural activity by delivering low-level electrical currents via scalp electrodes.