AP Psychology Unit 4 - Learning

Selective attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring others. Example: Listening to your teacher while classmates talk.

Behaviorism

The study of observable behaviors and how we learn them. Example: Studying how rewards change a dog's behavior.

Acquisition

The first stage of learning an association. Example: A dog learns that a bell means food is coming.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Something that naturally causes a reaction without learning. Example: Food naturally makes a dog salivate.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A natural, automatic reaction to a stimulus. Example: A dog salivates when it sees food.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Something originally neutral that causes a learned reaction. Example: A bell makes a dog salivate after being paired with food.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus. Example: A dog salivates when it hears a bell.

Extinction (classical)

A learned response weakens when the CS repeatedly appears without the US. Example: A bell stops causing salivation when no food follows.

Spontaneous recovery

An extinct learned response suddenly returns after a break. Example: A dog salivates at a bell again after a week.

Discrimination (classical)

Learning to respond differently to similar stimuli. Example: A dog reacts to one specific bell but not another.

Generalization (classical)

Responding to stimuli similar to the original CS. Example: A dog scared of one big dog becomes scared of all big dogs.

Higher-order conditioning

A learned stimulus is used to teach a new association. Example: A dog learns a light predicts a bell that already predicts food.

Emotional responses

Learned feelings triggered by certain things. Example: Feeling nervous when hearing a dentist's drill.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted learned response with a different one. Example: Pairing a feared dog with treats and calm experiences to reduce fear.

Taste aversion

Avoiding a food because it was associated with getting sick. Example: Never wanting sushi again after getting sick from it.

One-trial conditioning

Learning an association after just one experience. Example: Becoming afraid of a dog after one frightening encounter.

Biological preparedness

Being naturally more ready to learn certain associations. Example: Learning to fear snakes more easily than flowers.

Habituation

Responding less to something after repeated exposure. Example: Eventually not noticing a ticking clock.

Law of effect

Behaviors followed by good outcomes become more likely; bad outcomes make them less likely. Example: Studying more after getting an A.

Positive reinforcement

ADDING something pleasant to INCREASE behavior. Example: Getting candy for finishing homework.

Negative reinforcement

REMOVING something unpleasant to INCREASE behavior. Example: Buckling your seat belt to stop the beeping.

Positive punishment

ADDING something unpleasant to DECREASE behavior. Example: Getting extra chores for breaking a rule.

Negative punishment

REMOVING something pleasant to DECREASE behavior. Example: Losing phone privileges for breaking a rule.

Discrimination (operant)

Learning when a behavior will be rewarded and when it won't. Example: Asking one parent for candy because they usually say yes.

Generalization (operant)

Doing a learned behavior in similar situations. Example: Saying please to different adults because it has been rewarded before.

Primary reinforcers

Rewards that satisfy natural biological needs. Example: Food, water, and warmth.

Secondary reinforcers

Rewards that become valuable through learning. Example: Money, grades, and trophies.

Shaping

Rewarding small steps toward a desired behavior. Example: Rewarding a dog for sitting closer and closer to the correct position.

Instinctive drift

When natural instincts interfere with learned behavior. Example: A trained animal starts doing its natural food-seeking behavior instead of the trick.

Superstitious behavior

Repeating an action because you mistakenly think it caused a reward. Example: Wearing lucky socks after winning a game.

Learned helplessness

Giving up after repeatedly experiencing things you cannot control. Example: A student stops trying after many failures, even when success is possible.

Continuous reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior EVERY time it happens. Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits.

Partial reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior only SOME of the time. Example: Sometimes getting a prize when playing an arcade game.

Reinforcement schedule graphs

Graphs showing responses over time; steeper lines mean faster responding. Example: A steep cumulative-record line means many responses in a short time.

Fixed ratio (FR)

Reward after a SET NUMBER of responses. Example: Getting a free coffee after buying 10 coffees.

Fixed interval (FI)

Reward for the first response after a SET AMOUNT OF TIME. Example: Checking for a reward more often as the weekly reward time approaches.

Variable ratio (VR)

Reward after an UNPREDICTABLE NUMBER of responses. Example: A mystery prize appears after a random number of game wins.

Variable interval (VI)

Reward for the first response after an UNPREDICTABLE AMOUNT OF TIME. Example: Checking your phone for messages that arrive randomly.

Social learning theory

Learning behaviors by watching and imitating others. Example: A child learns to clean by watching a parent.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning an emotional response by watching someone else's reaction. Example: Becoming afraid of dogs after watching a sibling panic around one.

Insight learning

Suddenly figuring out a solution without trial and error. Example: Suddenly realizing how to solve a difficult puzzle.

Latent learning

Learning something without showing it until needed. Example: Knowing the way to school even though you have never driven there.

Cognitive maps

Mental pictures of places and their layouts. Example: Knowing where the cafeteria is without using a map.