Chapter 8: The Enlightenment and Revolutions

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering Chapter 8: The Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, Enlightened Absolutism, and the American Revolution.

Scientific Revolution

A historical movement that shifted away from relying on the Bible, Aristotle, and Ptolemy for knowledge, establishing that the universe could be understood through natural causes.

Geo-centrism (The Ptolemaic System)

A model created by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy asserting that the Earth is fixed in the middle of the universe and celestial bodies spin around it, fitting the Christian view of God's image-bearers at the center.

Nicolaus Copernicus

A mathematician who formulated helio-centrism, proposing that the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

Johannes Kepler

An astronomer who discovered that planetary orbits are elliptical (oval-shaped) rather than circular.

Galileo Galilei

An astronomer who used a telescope to observe planets and confirm Copernican and Keplerian beliefs, but was confronted by the Church and forced to publicly deny his claims under threat of torture.

Sir Isaac Newton

A Cambridge University professor who authored Principia, developed calculus, formulated the 3 Laws of Motion, and proposed the Universal Law of Gravitation.

Universal Law of Gravitation

The law stating that everything in the universe is attracted to other things through gravity.

Pascal’s Law

The physical law formulated by Blaise Pascal stating that any pressure applied to a liquid will be evenly distributed throughout it.

Boyle’s Law

The gas law formulated by Robert Boyle establishing that the volume of a gas depends on the pressure applied to it.

Rationalism

A philosophical movement associated with René Descartes based on the concept of doubt and "I think, therefore I am," emphasizing that matter can be investigated and understood through reason.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to inquiry formalized by Francis Bacon consisting of five stages: Ask a Question, Research, Develop a Hypothesis, Experiment, and Analyze and Revise.

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement that applied systems of thought from the Scientific Revolution to human life, politics, religion, and ethics, characterized by reason, progress, and skepticism.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's philosophical concept stating that everyone starts off at birth as a "blank slate" that society fills over time.

Baron de Montesquieu

French philosopher (Charles-Louis Secondat) who studied English law and proposed a three-branched government operating with checks and balances.

Deism

The religious belief held by Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) viewing God as a Clockmaker who created the universe, set it in motion, and left it to run on its own without intervening.

Social Contract (Rousseau)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's political philosophy stating that society must be governed by the overall will of society rather than individual desires.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An Enlightenment writer who argued that because all humans possess reason, men and women should receive the same education.

John Wesley

An Anglican minister who founded the Methodist Church after experiencing the "gift of God's grace" and traveled across England preaching God's radical grace.

Enlightened Absolutism

A system of monarchical rule influenced by Enlightenment ideas, featuring religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, private property rights, fostering the arts, science, and education, and fair enforcement of laws the government itself must obey.

Junkers

The Prussian noble class who served as military officers and government officials under Frederick William I.

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

Prussian ruler who abolished torture, granted some freedom of speech and press, and permitted religious tolerance while maintaining an aggressive military expansion policy.

Joseph II

Austrian emperor who made philosophy the lawmaker of his empire by freeing serfs and enacting religious tolerance, but caused widespread alienation among his subjects.

Catherine II (Catherine the Great)

German-born ruler of Russia who took power after Peter III was killed, maintained noble support after suppressing Pugachev's rebellion, and expanded Russian territory through Poland and to the Black Sea.

War of Austrian Succession (1740-48)

A conflict initiated by Prussia's invasion of Austrian Silesia that pitted Prussia and France against Austria and Britain, concluded by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

A global conflict featuring France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Saxony, and Spain against Great Britain, Prussia, and Portugal, concluded by the Treaty of Paris giving England Canada, Florida, and lands east of the Mississippi River.

The Stamp Act of 1765

A British tax levied on paper goods in the American colonies to raise funds following the Seven Years' War, repealed in 1766 due to fierce colonial opposition.

Continental Congresses

Two colonial assemblies: the First (1774) met to address grievances with Britain before fighting started, and the Second (1775) established the Continental Army under Commander-in-Chief George Washington.

Common Sense

A 1776 pamphlet written by Thomas Paine arguing that monarchies usurp power from the people and that citizens should govern themselves, selling over 100,000 copies.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

The treaty that formally recognized the independence of the United States and ceded all British lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the U.S.

Federal System

A constitutional division of power where authority is shared between the national government and state governments.

The Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments ratified to the U.S. Constitution (out of 12 proposed) guaranteeing civil liberties including freedoms of religion, speech, assembly, bearing arms, and due process.