Psy new flashcards

Behaviorism

The study of observable behavior and how the environment influences it.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Who developed the Law of Effect?

Edward Thorndike.

Radical Behaviorism

Skinner's approach emphasizing behavior and environmental influences.

Determinism

The idea that behavior is influenced by prior causes, not entirely free will.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations between two stimuli; usually involves involuntary responses.

Who is associated with Classical Conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences that increase or decrease behavior.

Who is associated with Operant Conditioning?

B.F. Skinner.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without learning. Example: food.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus. Example: salivating to food.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not cause the specific response being studied.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after conditioning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus. Example: salivating to a bell.

Pavlov's Bell

The bell became a conditioned stimulus after being repeatedly paired with food.

Elicited

A response is triggered or brought about by a stimulus.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

Positive in Operant Conditioning

Something is added to the situation.

Negative in Operant Conditioning

Something is removed from the situation.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase a behavior. Example: giving a treat for good behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior. Example: nagging stops after chores are done.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior. Example: assigning extra chores.

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior. Example: taking away phone privileges.

Shaping

Teaching a behavior by rewarding small steps toward a final desired behavior.

Successive Approximation

Reinforcing behaviors that gradually get closer to the desired behavior.

Extinction

The weakening or disappearance of a learned response when its association or reinforcement is no longer maintained.

Preparedness

A biological tendency to learn certain associations more easily than others.

Prepared Phobias

Fears that are easier to develop because of evolutionary predispositions.

Fear Conditioning

Learning to associate a stimulus with something frightening or unpleasant.

What does behaviorism say about how the mind learns?

The mind learns through stimulus-response connections.

What is a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

What is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Which reinforcement schedule is hardest to extinguish?

Variable ratio schedule.

Classical vs. operant conditioning: What is associated with a significant event?

Classical conditioning: a stimulus. Operant conditioning: a behavior.

Which researchers are associated with operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike.

What therapy uses conditioning principles to treat phobias and anxiety?

Systematic desensitization.

What can rats learn in a Skinner box?

To press a lever when pressing it is reinforced with food.

What is stimulus generalization?

Responding to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

What is an example of stimulus generalization?

A rabbit hears a similar bag crinkle and expects a treat.

Why are humans more likely to associate snakes with danger?

Preparedness; an evolutionary tendency to learn certain fears more easily.

What is a token economy?

A system where people earn tokens for desired behaviors and exchange them for rewards.

Why are tokens considered positive reinforcement?

Tokens are added to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

What is semantic encoding?

Processing information based on its meaning.

What is implicit memory?

Memory that influences behavior without conscious recall.

What is explicit memory?

Memory that involves consciously remembering information.

What is second-order conditioning?

Using an existing conditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned stimulus.

What is rehearsal?

Repeating information to help remember it.

What is retinal disparity?

The slightly different images each eye receives of the same object.

What is the primary visual cortex?

The brain area at the back of the brain that processes visual information.

What are sensory neurons?

Neurons that carry sensory information; they are located in the peripheral nervous system.

What is working memory?

Consciously activated memory with limited capacity.

What is short-term memory?

A temporary, limited-capacity memory system.

What is the retina?

The part of the eye where light is converted into neural signals.

What is the recency effect?

Remembering the last items in a list especially well.

How are signals from the right side of both retinas processed, according to the quiz?

They are sent to the right hemisphere for processing.

What challenged the behaviorist worldview?

Violations of equipotentiality, latent learning, cognitive maps, and insight in animals.

What are feature detectors?

Brain cells that respond to specific visual features.

What is hierarchical organization?

Organizing information into categories and smaller subcategories.

What did Sperling's experiment demonstrate?

A brief, photographic sensory memory of all nine displayed letters.

Which brain structure helps process explicit memories for storage?

The hippocampus.

What is semantic memory?

Memory for facts and definitions.

What is episodic memory?

Memory for specific personal experiences or events.

What is transduction?

Transforming stimulus energy into neural impulses.

What are cones?

Photoreceptors that are more sensitive to color and work best in brighter light.

serial position effect

The primacy effect (first items) and recency effect (last items).

What is sensation?

The process of receiving sensory information and sending it to the brain.

What is perception?

the process by which the brain selects, organizes and interprets sensory information.

Cochlea

Spiral bone structure in the inner ear containing auditory hair cells

What does sensory adaptation mean?

Becoming less aware of a constant or repeated stimulus over time.

What is the opponent-process theory of color vision?

Color is processed in opposing pairs, such as red-green and blue-yellow.

What is selective attention?

Focusing on certain information while filtering out other information.

What is elaborative encoding?

Connecting new information to knowledge you already have.

What is a schema, according to Piaget?

A mental framework used to organize and understand information.

What does encoding mean?

Getting information into memory.

What is iconic memory?

A very brief visual sensory memory.

What does having more rods suggest about someone's vision?

Greater sensitivity to low light and better night vision.

What is associative learning?

Learning by forming connections between events, stimuli, or behaviors.

Agonosia

loss of the ability to perceive stimuli

bottom- up processing

building up to perceptual experience from the individual pieces

anosmia

loss of the ability to smell

What do we sense?

The naïve view. We sense the world that is there to be sensed (false)

The adaptive view. We sense the properties that mattered for our ancestors’ survival.

The seven channels of sensation

-              Vision (extremely good)

-              Hearing

-              Smell (pretty bad)

-              Taste

-              Skin senses (pressure, temperature, pain)

-              Proprioception

-              Kinesthesia (where our limbs are)

-              Vestibular sense (gravity/ acceleration

-              Pheromones (mostly atrophied, unconscious)

We are unable to sense

infrared light, location of objects in the dark, the Earth’s magnetic field, radio waves, others’ thoughts, ovulation

Basic principles: psychological

       Psychological reality does not correspond directly to physical reality

-              Many properties are not “really” in the objects at all

-              Psychological intensity differences don’t correspond to physical intensity differences

Weber’s law

- to perceive a difference between two stumuli, they must differ by a constant proportion

Distal stimulus

real out there in the world far away

Proximal stimulus

Transduced by retinal cells into

Neural impulse along the optic nerve

Converted, Sensation, Interpreted by perceptual software into perception

Rods

peripheral retina, detect black, white, gray and low light or twilight

Specialization and Parallel processing

 are what allows computers to do well and take in all the information in

Specialization

-              Young and Helmholtz

-              Three color receptors- red, green, blue

Strange phenomena

-              The receptors turn on and off when analyzing the types of colors.

Red- on

Green-off

Feature detectors

-              Neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features

-              Shape

-              Angle

-              Movement

Parallel processing

Simultaneous processing of several dimensions through multiple pathways

-              Color, motion, form and depth

Spiral aftereffect

We can sometimes fool our senses

Importance of perception

-              Dealing with everyday life

-              Human factors research

The miracle of perception

-              Your slow brain answers\

-               questions instantly and accurately

-              The proximal stimulus doesn’t contain enough information

What does the brain do

-              Massive reliance on heuristics

-              Simultaneous bottom-up ( building from sensations ) and top-dwon (use expectations and knowledge) processing.

Questions that our brain answers: what is it

form perception, bottom-up process (feature detectors, figure- ground perception, similarity, proximity and good continuation), top-down ( conceptually driven) process, priming and context effects