AP Gov: Campaigns, Elections, Parties & Interest Groups

General election

The main election where voters decide which candidate from opposing political parties will officially hold office.

Primary election

A preliminary election where voters choose a political party's candidate to represent them in the general election.

Incumbency advantage

Structural electoral benefits existing officeholders have over challengers, leading to high re-election rates.

Safe seat

An electoral district where one political party has such a dominant majority that winning is virtually guaranteed.

Open seat

An election in a district where no incumbent is running for re-election, making the race highly competitive.

Reapportionment

Redistribution of the 435 U.S. House seats among states based on population changes in the census.

Redistricting

Redraw of congressional and state legislative district boundaries within a state following reapportionment.

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district boundaries specifically to give one political party or group an unfair advantage.

Reversion to the mean

Statistical trend where extreme electoral performance in one election returns toward historical average in subsequent elections.

Surge and decline

Pattern where high presidential election turnout boosts president's party, followed by lower mid-term turnout causing seat losses.

Presidential penalty

Systematic loss of congressional seats suffered by sitting president's party during mid-term elections.

Coattail effect

Tendency for a popular presidential candidate at top of ballot to pull down-ballot candidates into victory.

Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)

Supreme Court ruling establishing the 'one person, one vote' principle for U.S. House districts.

Karcher v. Daggett (1983)

Supreme Court ruling that congressional redistricting plans must achieve population equality as close to perfection as possible.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Supreme Court ruling that race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing district lines.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

Supreme Court decision striking down the preclearance formula of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Australian ballot

A government-printed, secret ballot listing all official candidates, cast in privacy to prevent voter intimidation.

Grassroots organizing

Mobilizing ordinary citizens at the local community level to participate in political activity and influence policy.

Election interference

Illegal or improper efforts by foreign actors or domestic groups to alter or corrupt election outcomes.

GOTV (Get Out The Vote)

Targeted campaigns organized by political parties or groups to encourage registered supporters to actually vote.

Compulsory voting

A legal mandate requiring all eligible citizens to register and vote in public elections or face penalties.

Information costs

The time, effort, and resources required for a voter to gather and process political knowledge.

Retrospective voting

Voting behavior based on evaluating a candidate's or political party's past performance in office.

Prospective voting

Voting behavior based on how a candidate promises to handle future issues and policy choices.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote in political elections.

Franchise

The statutory or constitutional privilege of voting granted to citizens.

Voter malaise

A feeling of apathy, disgust, or disinterest among voters toward the political system leading to low turnout.

Voter registration

Requirement that citizens enroll on an official voter list prior to casting a ballot in an election.

Voter mobilization

Organized efforts by political groups to contact voters and encourage active participation in elections.

Civic duty

The belief that participating in public affairs and voting is a fundamental obligation of living in a democracy.

15th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, and 26th Amendments

Constitutional amendments expanding voting rights: 15th (race), 19th (gender), 23rd (DC vote), 24th (bans poll taxes), 26th (age 18).

Social connectedness

Degree to which individuals are integrated into community networks, churches, and civic organizations.

Rational voting

Economic theory that a citizen votes only if expected benefits outweigh personal costs (V = B - C).

Jim Crow Laws

Southern state laws enacted after Reconstruction to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchise Black citizens.

Grandfather clauses

Historical exemptions allowing illiterate/poor white citizens to vote if ancestors could vote before Civil War.

Party images

Generalized set of mental perceptions, voter stereotypes, and expectations associated with each major political party.

Political party

An organized group of people with shared political ideas seeking to win elections and control government offices.

Party platform

Formal written declaration outlining a political party's core beliefs, philosophy, and specific legislative goals.

Patronage system

Distributing government jobs, contracts, or political favors to loyal party supporters after winning an election.

Party identification

A voter's long-term psychological attachment or self-proclaimed loyalty to a specific political party.

Doctrinal third parties

Minor political parties built around a comprehensive, radical ideology that differs sharply from main political consensus.

Transient third parties

Short-lived minor parties formed temporarily around a single intense issue or charismatic leader splitting from main party.

Single-member simple plurality (SMSP)

Electoral system where the candidate with the most votes in a district wins, regardless of majority.

Proportional representation

Electoral system where legislative seats are allocated to political parties based on percentage of national votes.

Party in government

Elected and appointed public officials belonging to a political party who work together to pass policy agendas.

Party as organization

Official infrastructure, staff, committees, headquarters, and leaders keeping a political party operating between elections.

Party in the electorate

Ordinary citizens and voters who identify with, feel loyalty toward, or regularly vote for a political party.

Party coalitions

Alliance of distinct demographic and interest groups that unite to back a political party.

Responsible parties

Ideal model where parties present clear policies, candidates abide by them, and voters hold governing party accountable.

Realignment

Dramatic, long-lasting shift in voter allegiance and political party coalitions that redefines political landscape.

Critical elections

Landmark elections marking a major realignment, characterized by intense turnout and permanent partisan shifts.

Dealignment

Trend where voters abandon party loyalty altogether, leading to a rise in independent voters and split-ticket voting.

Candidate-centered campaign

Election campaign focused primarily on individual candidate's personal image and background rather than party platform.

Party system

Persistent pattern and framework of political parties, party relationships, and electoral rules operating within a nation.

Political machine

Tightly organized local party group controlling votes and maintaining power through patronage, favors, and discipline.

Populism

A political approach appealing to 'ordinary people' against a perceived corrupt political or economic elite.

Interest groups

Formal organizations of individuals sharing common goals who attempt to influence government policy and legislation.

Pluralist theory

Theory that democracy works best when multiple competing interest groups negotiate, compromise, and balance power.

Elite theory

View that a small, wealthy group of corporate leaders and political elites hold real political power.

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Official, regulated fundraising arm of an interest group that collects and donates limited funds directly to campaigns.

Super PACs

Independent expenditure-only committees that can raise and spend unlimited funds without candidate coordination.

Lobbying

Direct persuasion efforts by organized groups to convince government officials and lawmakers to support specific legislation.

Grassroots lobbying

Mobilizing public constituents to contact their elected representatives directly to demand action on legislative issues.

Economic interest groups

Organizations formed specifically to promote and protect the financial and economic self-interest of members.

Trade and professional interest groups

Associations representing specific industries or licensed professions to advance technical and legal interests.

Free rider problem

Challenge interest groups face when non-members benefit from collective political work without contributing effort or money.

Issue networks

Fluid, informal alliances of interest groups, congressional staff, academics, and media discussing specific policy fields.

Iron triangle

Mutually beneficial sub-governmental relationship between a congressional committee, executive agency, and interest group.

Dark money

Campaign spending by non-profit 501(c)(4) groups that do not legally have to disclose donor identities.

Direct action

Using nonviolent public protests, strikes, boycotts, or civil disobedience to force political change.

Litigation

Using court lawsuits and judicial system to challenge unconstitutional laws or force policy changes.

Electioneering

Direct political activity aimed at helping a specific candidate get elected (ads, endorsements, voter drives).

Amicus curiae brief

'Friend of the court' legal document submitted by outside interest groups to advise judges on pending cases.

Purposive incentives

Motivation to join an interest group driven by strong belief in the group's social or moral goals.

Material incentives

Tangible monetary or physical rewards offered to convince people to join an interest group.

Solidary incentives

Social rewards such as camaraderie, sense of belonging, and networking gained from joining an interest group.

Tillman Act (1907)

First federal law prohibiting corporations and national banks from making direct financial contributions to federal campaigns.

Federal Election Campaign Act / FECA (1971/1974)

Law creating donor disclosures, public campaign funding option, individual contribution limits, and the FEC.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act / BCRA (2002)

McCain-Feingold law banning soft money to parties and regulating electioneering communications.

Speechnow.org v. FEC (2010)

Federal appellate ruling that limits on independent political contributions violate First Amendment rights, creating Super PACs.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court ruling that political spending is protected speech, allowing unlimited independent corporate/union expenditures.