PY 215 Exam One

Evidence-based treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research

Empiricism

The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory

Quantitative method

A way of collecting empirical data in which information is converted to numbers for future statistical analysis

Qualitative method

A way of collecting empirical data that creates rich, in-depth descriptions of some phenomenon or group of people, often collected via interviews or extended observations

Reflexivity

A process in which researchers reflect on how their own values, biases, and experiences might shape the topics they study and the interpretations they make

Theory

A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

Hypothesis

A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate

Data

A set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies

Preregistered

A term referring to a study in which, before collecting any data, the researcher has stated publicly what the study’s outcome is expected to be

Replication

The process of conducting a study again to test whether the result is consistent

Weight of the evidence

A conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory

Falsifiability

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will indicate that the theory is wrong

Self-correcting

A process in which scientists make their research available for peer review, replication, and critique, with the goal of identifying and correcting errors in the research

Universalism

One of the four scientific norms, stating that scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researcher’s credentials or reputation; the same preestablished criteria apply to all scientists and all research

Communality

One of the four scientific norms, stating that scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the community

Disinterestedness

One of the four scientific norms, stating that scientists strive to discover the truth whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit

Organized skepticism

One of the four scientific norms, stating that scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and “ancient wisdom”

Applied research

Research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem

Basic research

Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems

Journal

A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience

Journalism

New and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience

Comparison group

A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way

Confound

A potential alternative explanation for a research finding; a threat to internal validity

Confederate

An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study

Probabilistic

Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases

Availability heuristic

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying predominantly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence in evaluating a conclusion

Bias blind spot

The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning

Confirmation bias

The tendency to consider only the evidence that supports a hypothesis, including asking only the questions that will lead to the expected answer

Empirical journal article

A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study

Review journal article

An article summarizing all the studies that have been published in one research area

Meta-analysis

A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports

Effect size

The magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables

Paywalled

A peer-reviewed academic journal that the general public must pay to access; only people who are members of subscribing institutions can access the content

Open access

A peer-reviewed academic journal that anyone, even the general public, can read without paying for access

Disinformation

A news story, photo, or video deliberately created to be false or misleading

Click restraint

A critical reading technique in which one deliberately pauses before accepting, sharing, or following an online link, especially when it provokes an emotional response

Lateral reading

A critical reading technique in which, rather than reading deeper into a suspicious website, one checks its claims on alternative, legitimate news sources

Variable

An attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values

Level

One of the possible variations, or values, of a variable

Constant

An attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question

Measured variable

A variable in a study whose levels are observed and recorded

Manipulated variable

A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by assigning participants to its different levels

Construct/Conceptual variable

A variable of interest, stated at an abstract level, usually defined as part of a formal statement of a psychological theory; a variable of interest, stated at an abstract, or conversational, level

Operational definition/variable

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study

Operationalize

To turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research study

Claim

The argument a journalist, researcher, or scientist is trying to make

Frequency claim

A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable

Association claim

A claim about two variables, in which the level of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable

Correlate

To occur or vary together (covary) systematically, as in the case of two variables

Correlational study

A study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the variables are measured; can support an association claim

Positive association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables

Negative association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable, and vice versa

Zero association

A lack of systematic association between two variables

Causal claim

A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable

Validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

Construct validity

An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study

Generalizability

The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other setting or contexts

External validity

An indication of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself

Statistical validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable

Point estimate

A single estimate of some population value (such as a percentage, a correlation, or a difference) based on data from a sample

Confidence interval

A given range indicated by lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate (e.g., percentage, difference, or correlation); a high proportion of CIs will capture the true population value

Margin of error of the estimate

In the context of a percentage estimate, an inferential statistic providing a range of values that has a high probability of containing the true population value

Covariance

The degree to which two variables go together; also one of the three criteria for establishing a causal claim, which states that, in a study’s results, the proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable

Temporal precedence

One of the three criteria for establishing a causal claim, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable

Internal validity

One of the three criteria for establishing a causal claim; a study’s ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables

Experiment

A study in which at least one variable is manipulated and another is measured

Independent variable

In an experiment, a variable that is manipulated; in a multiple-regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is measured; in a multiple-regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting

Random assignment

The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups