AP Psych - Neurobiology

association areas

regions of the cerebral cortex that don't perform specific sensory or motor functions, but they are involved in higher mental functions (thinking, planning, remembering, communication, etc.)

contralaterality

control of one side of your body by the other side of your brain

medulla oblangata

a structure in the brainstem that regulates vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

1. where most fibers cross to accomplish contralaterality

2. regulates heart rhythm, blood flow, breathing rate, digestion, and vomiting

pons

a structure in the brainstem that connects the medulla oblongata and the midbrain, serving as a relay station for signals between the forebrain and the cerebellum. It plays a role in regulating functions such as sleep, respiration, and facial expressions.

It also assists in communication between different parts of the brain and helps regulate autonomic functions.

1. includes portion the reticular activating systmem/reticular formation--arousal

2. bridge between cerebral hemispheres and both medulla and cerebellem

cerebellum

1. balance

2. coordinates motor function integrating motion and positional information from the inner ear and muscles

basil ganglia/nuclei

1. links thalamus with motor cortex and other motor areas

2. regulates movement initiation, balance, eye movement

3. involved in reward/punishment learning and focus

4. some nuclei involved in emotion

thalamus

1. relay station for sensory pathways carrying visual, auditory, taste, somatosensory info to/from areas of cerebral cortex

2. some nuclei involved in emotion

hypothalamus

1. controls autonomic functions such as body teperature and heart rate via control of sympathetic and parasympathetic centers in the medulla

2. sets drives (hunger, thirst, and sexual desires) and behaviors.

3. sets emotional states, such as rage with the limbic system

4. integrates with endocrine system by secretion of hormones that regulate hormones from pituitary

5. determines biological rhythms (circadian, menstrual, etc.)

amygdala

1. aggression and fear

2. fight/flight

hippocampus

1. enables formation of long-term memories

cerebral cortex

1. receives and processes sensory information and directs movement.

2. center for higher order processes such as thinking, planning, and judgment

divided into eight lobes--four in left cerebral hemisphere, and four in right cerebral hemisphere

occipital lobes

primary area for processing visual information

parietal lobes

front strip=somatosensory cortex--processes sensory info, like touch, temperature, and pain from body parts; association areas perceive objects; contralateral representation of all body parts

somatosensory cortex

front strip of parietal lobes--processes sensory info, like touch, temperature, and pain from body parts

frontal lobes

interpret and control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; motor cortex strip initiates movements and integrates activities of skeletal muscles; Broca's area produces speech

motor cortex

strip just in front of somatosensory cortex (back strip of frontal lobes) that initiates movements and integrates activities of skeletal muscles

Broca's area

in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech

temporal lobes

primary area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music/tonality (right temporal lobe), and processing smell (near front of temporal lobes)

Wernicke's area

in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and forming meaningful sentence.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

phantom limb syndrome

a phenomenon in which patients can feel their missing limbs moving, even in coordinated gestures such as shaking hands

glial cells

supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes wastes of neurons

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

3 major functions of neuron

1. receive info

2. process info

3. transmit info to the rest of the body

cell body

aka cyton or soma; , largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus (which directs synthesis of such substances as neurotransmitter) and much of the cytoplasm

dendrites

branching tubular extensions of neuron that have receptor sites that receive messages from neighboring neurons

axon

long nerve fiber extending from the cell body of a neuron; transmits an action potential; branches and ends in tips called terminal buttons/axon terminals/synaptick knobs, which secrete neurotransmitters

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue made by glial cells encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission of the action potential

terminal buttons

Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters when stimulated by the action potential

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending/presynaptic neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

acetylcholine

aka ACh; , a neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction and regulates heart muscles; affects learning and memory; transmits messages btwn brain and spinal cord; lack=Alzheimer's

dopamine

neurotransmitter that stimulates the hypothalamus to synthesize hormones; influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack=Parkinson's; too much=schizophrenia

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the cortex and memory formation in the hippocampus. glutamate receptors are involved in both schizophrenia and Alzheimer's

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. lack=depression.

endorphins

a type of opioid peptide often considered the brain's own pain killer

Gamma-aminobutyric acid

aka GABA; inhibits firing of neurons. too little GABA production in coordination/motor parts of brain=Huntington's. malfunctioning GABA systems=seizures

increase activity of GABA

Valium/benzodiazepine and anticonvulsant drugs

Huntington's Disease

caused by too little GABA production in coordination/motor parts of brain

agonists

drugs that mimic neurotransmitters and bind to receptor sites to produce the effect of the neurotransmitter

antagonists

drugs that block receptor sites, inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitters or agonists

action potential

a neural impulse/firing of neuron; a net flow of Na- ions into the cell that cause a rapid change in potential across the membrane when stimulation reaches threshold

all-or-none principle

refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full blown or not at all. strength of an action potential is constant whenever it occurs.

nodes of ranvier

small gaps in the myelin sheath of medullated axons

saltatory conduction

rapid conduction of impilsees when the axon is myelinated, since depolarizations jump from node to node (of Ranvier)

synapse

the region of communication between the axon tip of the sending/transmitting presynaptic neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving postsynaptic neuron, muscle or gland, consisting of the presynaptic terminal buttons, a tiny space and recepetor sites typically on the postsynaptic dendrites

excitatory neurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to generate an action potential (to fire)

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing

reflex

simplest form of behavior

reflex arc

the neural path of a reflex--typically includes a receptor, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron, and effector.

sensory receptor

cell typically in sense organs that initiate action potentials, which then travel along sensory/afferent neurons to the CNS

afferent neuron

aka sensory neuron; nerve cell in PNS that transmits impulses from receptors to the brain/spinal cord

interneuron

neuron in CNS that transmits impulses btwn sensory and motor neurons. Neural impulses travel one way along the neuron from dendrites to axons to terminal buttons, and among neurons from the receptor to the effector.

efferent neuron

aka motor neuron; neuron in PNS that transmits impulses from sensory or interneurons to muscle cells that contract or gland cells that secrete

effector

muscle cell that contracts or gland cell that secretes

endocrine system

the system of ductless glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity

hormone

chemical messenger that travels through the blood to a receptor site on a target organ

pineal gland

endocrine gland located in the center of the brain, functioning to secrete melatonin that helps regulate circadian rhythms and is associated with SAD

pituitary gland

"master gland"--produces stimulating hormonse that promote secretion by other glands including: TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone); ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) that stimulates adrenal cortex; FSH that stimulates egg/sperm production

thyroid gland

produces thyroxine, which regulates metabolism, body heat, and bone growth. lack of thyroxine in children=mental retardation.

parathyroids

endocrine glands in neck that produce parathyroid hormone, which helps maintain calcium ion level in blood necessary for normal functioning of neurons.

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

two different adrenal glands

1. adrenal cortex

2. adrenal medulla

adrenal cortex

outer layer of adrenal glands; produces steroid hormones (ex: cortisol--stress hormone)

adrenal medulla

core of adrenal glands; secretes adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), which prepare body for fight/flight--like sympathetic nervous system

pancreas

a large elongated exocrine and endocrine gland located behind the stomach, which produces insulin and glucagon that regulates blood sugar and fuels all behavioral processes. too much=hypoglycemia. too little=diabetes.

ovaries and testes

gonads in females and males respectively; necessary for reproduction and secondary sex characteristics

zygote

fertilized egg

gene

each DNA segment of a chromosome that determines a trait

chromosome

threadlike structure within the nucleus containing the genetic information that is passed from one generation of cells to the next. human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, 23 from father, and 23 from mother. if father gives Y chromosome-->male baby. if not, female baby.

Turner's syndrome

XO

females with only one X chromosome--short, often sterile, and difficulty calculating

Klinefelter's syndrome

XXY

males with XXY sex chromosomes--at puberty, male secondary sex characteristics fail to develop, but breast tissue does. tend to be passive.

Down's syndrome

three copies of chromosome-21; mentally retarded, round head, flat nasal bridge, protruding tongue, small round ears, fold in eyelid, poor muscle tone and coordination.

genotype

genetic makeup for a trait

phenotype

expression of the genes

dominant gene

expressed gene

recessive gene

hidden gene

Tay-Sachs syndrome

produces progressive loss of nervous function and death in infancy.

albinism

failure to synthesize or store pigment and also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain-->quivering eyes and inability to perceive depth or 3D with both eyes.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

results in severe, irreversible brain damage without special diet low in phenylalanine within 30 days of birth; infant lacks enzyme to process this amino acid, which can poison the nervous system if it builds up.

Huntington's disease

dominant gene defect that cause degeneration of the nervous system. Progressive symptoms=forgetfulness, tremors, jerky motions, loss of speech, personality changes (temper tantrums/accusations), blindness, and death.

color blindness

sex-linked trait--much more frequently in males than females. recessive genes for it are located on the X chromosome with no corresponding gene on the Y chromosome.

evoked potentials

in an EEG (electroencephalogram), the amplified tracing of brain activity when the recorded change in voltage results from a response to a specific stimulus presented to the subject.