bricks, beads and bones

These notes outline the key topics of the **Harappan Civilisation** (also known as the Indus Valley civilisation) based on the archaeological evidence provided in the sources.

### 1. Introduction and Geographical Extent

* **Time Frame:** The civilisation is dated between **c. 2600 and 1900 BCE**. It is preceded by "Early Harappan" cultures and followed by "Late Harappan" cultures.

* **Defining "Culture":** Archaeologists use this term for a group of objects, distinctive in style, found together in a specific area and time. For Harappa, these include **seals, beads, weights, stone blades, and baked bricks**.

* **Geography:** Settlements were spread across a vast area, including **Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan), and Gujarat**.

### 2. Subsistence and Agriculture

* **Dietary Practices:** The Harappans ate a variety of plant and animal products, including fish.

* **Grains:** Finds include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, and millets (found in Gujarat); rice remains are rare.

* **Animals:** Domesticated species included cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. Bones of wild animals like boar and deer were also found.

* **Agricultural Technology:**

* **Oxen and Ploughing:** Representations on seals and terracotta models found in **Cholistan** and **Banawali** indicate the use of bulls and ploughs. Evidence of a ploughed field with two sets of furrows was discovered at **Kalibangan**.

* **Irrigation:** Because many sites are in semi-arid lands, irrigation was necessary. Traces of **canals** were found at Shortughai (Afghanistan), and **water reservoirs** at Dholavira (Gujarat) were likely used to store water for crops.

### 3. Mohenjodaro: A Planned Urban Centre

Mohenjodaro is the most well-known Harappan site, characterized by its unique urban planning.

* **Settlement Layout:** Divided into two sections:

* **The Citadel:** A smaller, higher area on the west, built on mud-brick platforms and walled to separate it from the rest of the city. It contained structures for special public purposes.

* **The Lower Town:** A larger, lower residential area, also walled and built on foundations requiring massive labour.

* **Planned Drainage:** One of the most distinctive features. Streets and drains were laid out first in a **grid pattern** (intersecting at right angles), and then houses were built along them. Main channels were made of brick set in mortar and covered with loose bricks or limestone for cleaning.

* **Domestic Architecture:** Houses were centered on a **courtyard** (used for cooking and weaving) with rooms on all sides. Features included:

* **Privacy:** No windows at ground level; the main entrance did not offer a direct view of the interior.

* **Amenities:** Every house had its own brick-paved bathroom connected to street drains; many had wells (Mohenjodaro had roughly 700 wells).

### 4. Public Structures on the Citadel

* **The Warehouse:** A massive structure where only the lower brick portions remain, as the wooden upper portions decayed.

* **The Great Bath:** A large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by corridors. It was made watertight with bricks and **gypsum mortar**. It featured two flights of steps and a large drain, suggesting it was used for **special ritual baths**.

### 5. Tracking Social Differences

* **Burials:** Dead were generally laid in pits, sometimes lined with bricks. Graves occasionally contained pottery and jewellery (found with both men and women), but the Harappans generally did **not** bury large amounts of wealth with the dead.

* **Artefacts:** Archaeologists classify objects as:

* **Utilitarian:** Daily use items made of ordinary materials like stone or clay (e.g., querns, pottery, needles).

* **Luxuries:** Rare items made from costly materials or complex technologies, such as **faience pots** or gold jewellery. These are usually concentrated in large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

### 6. Craft Production and Trade

* **Specialised Centres:** **Chanhudaro** was almost exclusively devoted to crafts like bead-making, shell-cutting, and seal-making. **Nageshwar** and **Balakot** were centres for shell objects (bangles, ladles) due to their coastal locations.

* **Bead-Making:** Materials included stones (**carnelian**, jasper, steatite), metals (copper, gold), and terracotta. Techniques varied by material; steatite was soft and easily worked, while harder stones required grinding and drilling.

* **Raw Material Procurement:** Harappans obtained materials through:

* **Settlements:** Establishing sites near resources (e.g., Shortughai for **lapis lazuli**, Lothal for carnelian).

* **Expeditions:** Sending teams to regions like **Khetri (Rajasthan)** for copper and South India for gold.

* **Distant Trade:** Evidence shows contact with **Oman** (copper), **Bahrain** (Dilmun), and **Mesopotamia** (Meluhha). Mesopotamian texts mention products from Meluhha like carnelian, lapis lazuli, and gold.

### 7. Seals, Script, and Weights

* **Seals and Sealings:** Used to secure bags of goods during long-distance trade and convey the sender's identity.

* **The Script:** An **undeciphered script** with 375 to 400 signs. It was not alphabetical and was written from **right to left**.

* **Weights:** Exchanges were regulated by standardized **chert weights**, usually cubical. Lower denominations were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, etc.), while higher ones followed the decimal system.

### 8. Ancient Authority and Decline

* **Authority:** The uniformity of artefacts (bricks, seals, weights) and the mobilization of labour suggest complex social decisions, though whether they were led by a single ruler, multiple rulers, or a "priest-king" remains debated.

* **The End (c. 1800–1900 BCE):** Most Mature Harappan sites were abandoned. Distinctive elements like seals and writing disappeared, replaced by "Late Harappan" rural cultures.

* **Causes of Decline:** Possible factors include climatic change, deforestation, floods, or the shifting of rivers, though these do not fully explain the total collapse of the state.