A&P Lab practical #1

superior, inferior

towards head or towards feet

anterior/ventral

towards front/belly side

posterior/dorsal

towards back/ spine

proximal/distal

at or toward trunk (beginning), away from body surface (end) → elbow is proximal to the fingers BUt distal to the shoulder

medial/lateral

towards midline, away form midline (thumb is most lateral) → heart is medial to the lungs

superficial, deep

at or near body surface, away from body surface (skill is superficial to brain)

Sagittal

separate left and right

frontal/coronal

separate front and back

horizontal/transverse

separate upper and lower body

Homeostasis set point

1st step = variable body is maintaining→ the target physiological value or ideal level that a biological system aims to maintain

Homeostasis sensor/receptor

2nd = senses changes from set point → monitor physiological value

Homeostasis control (integration center)

3rd =receives and processes information → send our command → compares value to normal range

Homeostasis effector

responds to commands → causes change to reverse situation

Homeostasis stimulus

a detectable change in the internal or external environment that disrupts a stable condition and triggers a homeostatic response.

Negative feedback

Regulation that restores the set point → opposes the direction of the stimulus (variables = blood pH, blood pressure, blood sugar, water, hormone levels, body temperature.)

Positive feedback

regulation produces a response that exaggerates a physiological response/activity → this is done in potentially dangerous situations where a fast response is needed (ex = blood clot, childbirth contractions, lactation, nerve impulses)

6 essential elements

PONCCHO (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus)

Protons

(+) charge, have mass, ATOMIC # → change protons = change element

Neutrons

no charge, have mass, change newtons = change isotopes

Electrons

(-) charge, dictates reactivity, NO MASS, change electrons = chane IONS

Which subatomic particle dictates chemical reactivity

electrons

Ionic bond

transfer of electrons (cation = donate, anion = acceptor)

Covalent bonds

sharing of electrons

Polar covalent bond

unequal sharing of electrons

Non-polar covalent bond

equal sharing of electrons - less reactive

Acid

releases H+ ions (lowers pH)

Base

releases OH- ions (increase pH)

Matter

anything that has mass or takes up space

Element

unique substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

Atom

building blocks of elements → atoms of one element differs from atom of another (P, N E)

Atomic symbol + mass

a standardized one- or two-letter abbreviation used to represent a chemical element (atomic number = # protons)

Coarse Focus

make large imprecise adjustments to move stage height (DO NOT USE 40x/100x)

Fine Focus

precise adjustment focus → SAFE FOR ALL MAGNIFICATIONS

Eyepiece

can be adjusted to eyes → have ocular lenses with 10x magnification

Objective lenses

scanning (4x), low power (10x) high power (40x) oil immersion (100x) → Total magnification = lens * 10 → 4X * 10 = 40

Mechanical stage + knobs

height is adjusted by coars eadjustment knob _> stage clip holds glass slide in place → mechanical stage knobs adjust position of slide (left/right/down/up)

Revolving nose piece

holds objective lenses → rotates and clicks

Nucleus

Control center of the cell → has all genetic info for protein production

Nucleolus

dark spot → contains chromatin (dna + proteins)

Nuclear envelope

membrane of nucleus

Nuclear pores

allow passage of proteins, RNA and solutes between nucleus and cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

cytosol + organelles + inclusions

Inclusions in cytoplasm

Consist of metabolic by-products, storage forms of various nutrients, inert crystals, pigments

Plasma membrane components

phospholipid bilayer + integral proteins (allows for external protection + selective permeability into the cell)

Golgi apparatus

Consists of stacked cisternae → Works with endoplasmic reticulum to modify and sort synthesized protein ⇒ release via vesicles

Rough ER

HAS RIBOSOMEs → production of proteins

Smooth ER

no ribosomes → production of lipids and carbohydrates

Ribosomes

site of protein production → two ribosome subunits that attach to mRNA to start translation

Mitochondria

site of ATP production → requires oxygen → double membranes (cristae = inner membrane)

Lysosomes

garbage men → LOTS OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES for waste → Remove old organelles via autophagy; cell "self destruct" via autolysis

Peroxisomes

DETOXIFY → se enzymes (catalase) to break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances → turn ROS species into hydroxide

Centrosomes

mall, non-membrane-bound organelle found in animal cells that acts as the main microtubule-organizing center

Cytoskeleton

group of fibrous membranes that provide structural support for cell → microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments

Epithelial tissue

protection, secretion, absorption, filtration, sensation IN LININGS + high regeneration (Simple/strat, squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostrat/column, transitional)

Connective tissue

(DIVERSE → SUPPORT, CARRY NUTRIENTS) specialized cells + extracellular matrix (ground substance = non cell fluid, semi-solid, hardened)

Muscle Tissue

Movement produced by contraction of cells → skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Nervous tissue

Specialized to conduct electrical impulses from one region of the body to another → mainly found in CNS (brain + SC)

Cytokinesis

cell splits into two daughter cells (diploid)

Prophase

Chromosomes condense, Spindle fibers emerge from centrosome → nuclear envelope breaks down

Prometaphase

kinetochores appear and mitotic spindles attach → chromatin continues to condense

Metaphase

chromosomes lined up at metaphase plate

Anaphase

sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite ends of cell

Telophase

nuclear envelope reforms, microfilaments starts cleavage furrow, mitotic spindle breaks down

During ____ chromosomes shorten and thicken allowing tehm to become visible

prophase

The reforming of nuclear envelope occurs during

telophase

Mitosis only occurs during

growth and tissue repair

Interphase

most of teh cell is spent here (g1, s, g2) → cell grows and synthesis new DAN for cell division

Integumentary system functions

interaction with external environment, protection form physical and chemical damage, regulate body temperature (insulation/evaoporation), synthesize vitamin D (endocrine function as well), sensory (tips of fingers) → Meissner corpuscle (light touch) and the Pacinian corpuscle (vibration) → CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE + ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

Epidermis

PREDOMINANTLY KERATINOCYTES stratified squamous epithelium → epidermis and epidermal papillary → form several layers = STRATA

Dermis

Has blood vessels, touch receptors, and accesory organs → papillary layer (20%) + Reticular layer (80%)

Papillary layer

20% of dermis → AREOLAR tissue

Reticular layer

80% of dermis → DENSSE IRREGULAR CT → COLLAGEN + ELASTIC fibers

Hair structures

follicle → 3 zones: bulb, root, shaft

Hair follicle

organ that produces hair

Hair bulb

swollen base SITS ON PAPILLA

Hair root

hair within the skin

Epidermal ridges

raised folds of the outer skin layer that interlock with the underlying dermis to create a strong bond and improve grip

Dermal papillae

border of dermis The dermal papilla is a small, specialized cluster of connective tissue cells located at the very base of the hair follicle that acts as the control center for hair growth and cycling

Sebaceous glands

ALWAYS ON → secretes sebum (fats, oils, dead epithelial cells (cuboidal)) -. MOISTURIZE/CONDITION HAIR + SKIN

Sweat Glands

NOT always on → watery fluid (99% water) + electrolytes → THERMOREGULATION + excretion + ANTIBACTERIAL PROPS

Hypodermis

separates skin from muscles → mainly adipose tissue (loose connective T) → HIGHLY VASCULAR + INNERVATED