Exam 1 Research Methods

Importance of Conducting Research

To gain insights, inform policy, and address problems through systematic investigation.

Scope of the Problem

The extent and implications of issues addressed through research, including policy responses.

Experiential Reality

Knowledge gained through personal experience and direct observation.

Agreement Reality

Knowledge derived from what others tell us, rather than personal experience.

Characteristics of Human Inquiry

Includes prediction, causal reasoning, and probabilistic reasoning utilized in everyday life.

Types of Errors in Human Inquiry

Inaccurate observations, overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, and ideology/politics.

Basics of Social Science Inquiry

Involves conscious observation choices, awareness of potential errors, and is not immune to mistakes.

Purposes of Research

Includes exploration, explanation, description, and application.

Stages of Research

Idea > Conceptualization > Research Method > Operationalization > Sampling > Observations > Analysis > Application.

Two Pillars of Scientific Inquiry

Logic and observation.

Three Aspects of the Scientific Enterprise

Theory, data collection, and data analysis.

Definition of Theory

A systematic explanation for observed facts relating to a specific aspect of life.

Building Theories

Involves moving from an idea to theoretical understanding and then to hypothesis formulation.

Steps from Idea to Test of Hypothesis

Starts with an idea, leads to theoretical understanding, hypothesis, operationalization, and hypothesis testing.

Nature of Scientific Research

Focuses on discovering regularities that are probabilistic rather than absolute.

Relationship Among Variables

Science examines how variables interact and influence one another.

Variables vs. Attributes

Variables are logical groupings of attributes; attributes are the specific characteristics.

Causation in Research

Involves conditions where independent variables influence dependent variables.

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

Dependent variables are affected by independent variables.

Research Distinctions

Includes idiographic vs. nomothetic, inductive vs. deductive reasoning, and qualitative vs. quantitative data.

Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Explanations

Nomothetic explains classes of situations; idiographic explains single situations.

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning starts with a hypothesis, while inductive begins with observations.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data

Qualitative data consists of characteristics; quantitative data consists of numbers.

Causation Criteria

1. Cause precedes effect; 2. Correlation between variables; 3. Correlation not due to another variable.

Scientific Realism

Bridges nomothetic and idiographic by explaining causal mechanisms in specific contexts.

Units of Analysis

The specific entities being studied to answer research questions.

Types of Units

Individual, group, social organization, and social artifact.

Ecological Fallacy

Mistakenly applying conclusions from one level of analysis to a different level.

Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Studies

Longitudinal studies examine changes over time; cross-sectional studies assess a single point in time.

Types of Longitudinal Designs

Prospective (future) and retrospective (past) studies.

Role of Conceptualization

It specifies the meanings of terms used in research.

Relationship of Concepts, Dimensions, and Indicators

Dimensions are aspects of concepts; indicators show presence or absence of concepts.

Conceptual Definition

A working definition assigned to a particular term.

Operational Definitions

Specifications on how concepts will be measured.

Steps of Conceptualization

Conceptualization > Conceptual Definition > Operational Definition > Real World Measurements.

Definition of Operationalization

The process of developing operational definitions for research.

Definition of Measurement

Assigning numbers or labels to units of analysis representing conceptual properties.

Measurement Properties

Attributes should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

Levels of Measurement

Includes nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels.

Nominal Measures

Involve names and labels for categorization.

Ordinal Measures

Attributes can be logically ranked.

Interval Measures

Distances between attributes have meaning.

Ratio Measures

Attributes based on a true zero point.

Assessing Measurement Quality

Involves reliability and validity.

Validity in Measurement

Refers to whether you are measuring what you intend to measure.

Reliability in Measurement

Concerns whether results can be consistently reproduced.

Assessing Validity

Includes face validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity.

Face Validity

Logical coherence; makes sense intuitively.

Criterion-Related Validity

Whether the measurements match comparable variable tests.

Construct Validity

Focuses on logical relationships among variables.

Assessing Reliability Methods

Includes the test-retest method.