infant and toddler

What are the main stages of growth and development?

Infancy

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Late Childhood

Q: What are the two stages included under Infancy?

Neonate

Infancy

What is the age range of a neonate?

Birth to 28 days.

What is the age range of infancy?

1 month to 1 year

What are the stages included under Early Childhood?

Toddler

Preschool

What is the age range of a toddler?

A: 1–3 years.

What is the age range of preschool children?

3–6 years.

What stage is included under Middle Childhood?

School age.

What is the age range of school-age children?

6–12 years.

What stage is included under Late Childhood?

Adolescent

What is the age range of an adolescent according to the slide?

13 years to approximately 18 years.

During which period are physical changes and developmental achievements especially dramatic?

During infancy.

What happens to all body systems during infancy?

All body systems undergo progressive maturation.

What are the two major features emphasized about infancy?

A:

Dramatic physical changes and developmental achievements.

Progressive maturation of all body systems.

How does an infant's weight change during the first year of life?

• Birth–4 months: gains ¾ kg/month.

• 5–8 months: gains ½ kg/month.

• 9–12 months: gains ¼ kg/month.

• By 6 months: birth weight doubles (×2).

• By 12 months: birth weight triples (×3).

🔑 Quick memory:
¾ → ½ → ¼
6 months = ×2 | 12 months = ×3

What is the equation for calculating the weight of an infant aged 3–12 months?

Weight (kg) = (Age in months + 9) ÷ 2

Example:
8 months → (8 + 9) ÷ 2 = 8.5 kg.

How does an infant's length/height increase during the first year?

• First 6 months: increases 2.5 cm/month.

• Second 6 months: increases half that amount = 1.25 cm/month.

🔑 2.5 → 1.25 cm/month

How does an infant's length increase during the first year, and how much does birth length increase by 1 year?

1–3 months: + 3 cm/month

4–6 months: + 2 cm/month

7–12 months: + 1.5 cm/month

By 1 year: birth length increases by almost 50%.

What is the infant's average head circumference at birth, 3 months, 6 months, and 1 year, and how much does head size increase by 1 year?

Birth: 35 cm

3 months: 40 cm

6 months: 43 cm

1 year: 46 cm

By 1 year: head size increases by almost 33%.

How does the infant's chest circumference compare with head circumference by the end of the first year?

A: The chest circumference approximately equals the head circumference by the end of the first year.

🔑 للحفظ:
End of 1 year → Chest ≈ Head

What are the major sensory developmental changes during infancy?

Binocular vision:

Hearing:

Familiar faces:

Binocular vision: well established by 4 months.

Hearing: well developed at birth; localizes sound by 3 months.

Familiar faces: recognized by 6 months.

What are the physiological vital signs of an infant according to the slide?

• Temperature: 36.5–37.6°C

• Pulse: 110–150 beats/min

• Respiration: 35–+10 breaths/min

• Breathing: Through the nose

• Blood pressure: 80/50–+20/10 mmHg

Fine motor development

Fine motor behavior includes the use of the hands and fingers in the prehension (grasp) of an object.

Gross motor development

Gross motor behavior includes developmental maturation in posture, head balance, sitting, creeping, standing, and walking.

Q: What are the fine motor milestones from newborn to 6 months?

• Newborn: Has very little control. Objects are involuntarily grasped and dropped without notice.

• 6 months: Uses a palmar grasp, using the entire hand to pick up an object.

Q: What are the fine motor milestones at 9 and 11 months?

9 months: Uses a pincer grasp to grasp small objects with the thumb and forefinger (crude pincer grasp).

11 months: Progresses to a neat pincer grasp and can put objects into a container and likes to remove them

What is the fine motor milestone at 1 year?

At 1 year, infants try to build a tower of two blocks, but fail.

Gross Motor Development 1- Head Control

Q: How does head control develop from newborn to 6 months?

Newborn: Hardly able to lift the head.

4 months: Can lift the head and front portion of the chest approximately 90° above the table.

6 months: Easily lifts the head, chest, and upper abdomen and can bear weight on the arms.

Gross Motor Development 2- Rolling Over

When does an infant develop the ability to roll over?

Newborn: May roll accidentally because of the rounded back.

5 months: Willfully turns abdomen → back.

6 months: Turns back → abdomen.

Goss Motor Development 3- Sitting

How does sitting develop from 2–3 months to 8 months?

2–3 months: Back is uniformly rounded.

4 months: Convex lumbar curve appears as the child begins to sit.

7 months: Sits alone, leaning forward on hands for support.

8 months: Sits without support and can engage in play.

Gross Motor Development 4-Locomotion

How does locomotion develop from 6 months to 1 year?

• 6–7 months: Bears all weight on legs with assistance.

• 9 months: Creeps on hands and knees; stands holding furniture and can pull to standing.

• 11 months: Walks while holding furniture.

• 1 year: May walk with one hand held.

According to Erikson, what is the psychosocial task during infancy?

Developing a Sense of Trust occurs from birth to 1 year. The infant works on acquiring trust while overcoming mistrust and trusts that their feeding, comfort, stimulation, and care needs will be met.

What are the effects of trust and mistrust according to Erikson?

Trust: Provides physical comfort and security, helping infants experience unfamiliar/unknown situations with minimal fear.

Failure to meet infant needs → Mistrust.

Mistrust can result from excessive or insufficient frustration.

What happens during Stage 1 of Piaget’s sensorimotor phase (Reflexes)?

Birth–1 month: Reflexive behaviors include sucking, grasping, and crying. The infant learns through senses and reflexes.

What happens during Stage 2 of Piaget’s sensorimotor phase (Primary Circular Reactions)?

1–4 months: Reflexes become voluntary acts, such as sucking and grasping on purpose. The infant begins recognizing causality and orderly sequences.

Example: The infant stops crying when hearing the parent’s voice.

Stage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months)

Q: What are the main characteristics of Stage 3 of Piaget’s sensorimotor phase?

Repeats actions to get effects: e.g., shakes a rattle to hear its sound.

Begins imitation, play, and outward emotional expression (affect).

Object permanence emerges: shifts from “out of sight, out of mind” toward remembering that objects still exist even when not seen.

Stranger anxiety begins at 6–8 months.

What are the main characteristics of Stage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas (8–12 months)?

More intentional and goal-directed actions.

Removes obstacles to get a toy → early problem-solving.

Develops early reasoning and stronger symbol use, e.g., waving = “bye-bye.”

Language Development

Q: What are the infant’s language development milestones?

First communication: Crying.

5–6 weeks: Small throaty sounds.

6 months: Imitates sounds, adds t, d, w, and babbles; may say “dada” but with no meaning yet.

9–10 months: Understands “no” and obeys simple commands.

12 months: Says 3–5 words with meaning and understands 100 words

Separation Anxiety & Stranger Fear

Q: How does attachment develop during infancy?

First 4 weeks: Responds indiscriminately to anyone.

8–12 weeks: Responds to mother and others, familiar or unfamiliar; by 3 months gives a social smile to the caregiver.

6 months: Shows a distinct preference for the mother.

7 months: Begins attaching to other family members, most often the father.

What are separation anxiety and stranger fear, when do they occur, why do they occur, and what behaviors may the infant show?

Separation anxiety starts at 6–8 months.

Stranger fear becomes prominent at this stage.

They are related to the infant’s ability to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people.

Common behaviors include:

• Clinging to the parent

• Crying

• Turning away from strangers

What are the first primary teeth to erupt, when do they appear, and how can you estimate the number of teeth?

First primary teeth: Lower central incisors

Eruption: 6–10 months

Average: 8 months

Estimated number of teeth = Age in months − 6

What are the characteristics of play in infants from birth to 1 year?

Infant activity is primarily narcissistic and revolves around the body.

Play type is solitary.

3–6 months: plays alone with a rattle or soft stuffed toy, or with someone else.

6 months–1 year: play involves sensorimotor skills and includes games such as peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake.

What are the red flags in infant development and their ages?

9 months: Unable to sit alone.

1 year: Unable to transfer objects from hand to hand.

15 months: Abnormal pincer grip or grasp.

18 months: Unable to walk alone.

2 years: Failure to speak recognizable words.

What are the toddler years, and what are their main characteristics?

The term “terrible twos” has often been used to describe the toddler years.

• The toddler period is from 12 to 36 months of age (1–3 years).

• It is a time of intense exploration of the environment as children attempt to find out:

  • How things work

  • What the word “no” means

  • The power of temper tantrums

  • Negativism

What are the proportional physical growth changes during toddlerhood?

Physical growth slows considerably during toddlerhood.

Weight:

• The average weight gain is 2 to 3 kg/year.

• By 2½ years of age, toddlers have quadrupled (×4) their birth weight.

Height:

• The usual increment is an addition of 7.5 cm/year.

• Growth occurs mainly through elongation of the legs rather than the trunk.

• The average height of a 2-year-old is 86.6 cm.

What are the head circumference, chest circumference, and sensory changes during toddlerhood?

Head Circumference (HC):

• The anterior fontanel closes between 12 and 18 months of age.

Chest Circumference (CC):

• CC approximately equals HC by the end of the first year.

• CC exceeds HC during the toddler years.

Sensory Changes:

• A visual acuity of 20/40 is considered acceptable during the toddler years.

What are the gross motor development milestones during toddlerhood?

Gross motor development:

• 12–13 months: Walk alone, using a wide stance for extra balance.

• 18 months: They try to run but fall easily.

• 2 years: Walk up and down stairs and jump using both feet.

• End of 2 years: Stand on one foot, walk on tiptoe, and climb stairs with alternate footing.

What are the fine motor development milestones during toddlerhood?

Fine motor development:

• 15 months: Drop a pellet into a narrow-necked bottle.

• 18 months: Throw a ball overhand without losing their balance and build a tower of 3 or 4 blocks.

• 2 years: Build a tower of 6 or 7 blocks.

• End of 3 years: Copy a circle and imitate a cross.

According to Erikson’s theory, what is the psychosocial developmental task of toddlerhood, and how does the toddler develop a sense of autonomy?

Erikson Theory – Developing a Sense of Autonomy:

• The developmental task of toddlerhood is acquiring a sense of autonomy while overcoming a sense of doubt and shame.

• According to Erikson, toddlers at this stage are focused on developing:

  • A sense of personal control over physical skills

  • A sense of independence

• They will feel comfortable:

  • Making decisions

  • Exploring their surroundings more freely

  • Having a sense of self-control

• Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

What happens if toddlers are overly controlled or criticized, and what opportunities help them develop autonomy?

Erikson Theory – Developing a Sense of Autonomy:

• If children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

• This can lead to:

  • Lack of confidence

  • Fear of trying new things

  • A sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities

• Opportunities for self-mastery are present in:

  • Appropriate play activities

  • Toilet training

What are the characteristics of Stage 5 (Tertiary Circular Reactions) in Piaget’s sensorimotor phase?

Stage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (13–18 months)

• Active experimentation → explores new ways to achieve goals.

• Combines old learning with new motor skills → early reasoning begins.

• Causal relationships recognized → e.g., light switch → light on.

• Safety concern: Accident risk rises.

What are the characteristics of Stage 6 of Piaget’s sensorimotor phase, and how does the child transition to the preoperational phase?

Stage 6: Invention of New Means Through Mental Combinations (19–24 months)

• Imitation & Symbolization: for example:

  • Domestic mimicry → imitates household chores.

  • Imitates same-gender parent.

Transition to Preoperational Phase (2–7 years):

• The second cognitive stage continues until the child is 7 years old.

• Toddlers enter the preconceptual stage, which lasts until age 4.

What are the main characteristics of the preconceptual stage in Piaget’s cognitive development?

Preconceptual Stage:

• Thinking is not logical → problem-solving is based on what is seen/heard, not memory.

• Symbolic use of language grows → e.g., “pencil = to write,” “food = to eat.”

• Prelogical reasoning → painful experiences are linked to fear → e.g., fear of people in scrubs.

What are the language development milestones during toddlerhood?

Language Development:

• One-year-old: Uses 3 to 5 words.

• Two years old: Knows approximately 300 words.

• Three years old:

  • The child puts words together into simple sentences.

  • Acquires 5 or 6 new words daily.

  • Knows his or her age and gender.

  • Counts 3 objects correctly.

When is voluntary sphincter control achieved, and what are the three markers that signal a child’s readiness for toilet training?

Toilet Training:

• Voluntary control of the anal and urethral sphincters is achieved sometime after the child is walking, probably between 18 and 24 months of age.

Three markers signal a child's readiness to toilet train:

1. Being aware of the urge to void or stool.

2. Interest in and/or motivation to use the toilet.

3. Being dry for at least 2 hours during the day.

What is sibling rivalry?

Sibling Rivalry:

• Sibling rivalry refers to the natural jealousy and resentment of children toward a new child in the family.

• It typically involves the arrival of a new infant but may be associated with anyone who joins the family.

When do temper tantrums commonly occur, and why might some children use them?

Temper Tantrums:

• Temper tantrums commonly occur when the child is:

  • Ill

  • Hungry

  • Frustrated

  • Tired

• Some children may use temper tantrums to:

  • Get parental attention

  • Get something they want

  • Avoid having to do something they do not want to do.

What is negativism in toddlers, and what is the best method of dealing with it?

Negativism:

• One of the more difficult aspects of rearing toddlers is related to their persistent negative response to every request.

• Negativism is not an expression of being stubborn or disrespectful, but a necessary assertion of control.

• Best method of dealing with negativism: Give the toddler limited choices to provide a sense of control, rather than directly forcing the child to comply.

What is parallel play in toddlers, and what types of toys and activities do toddlers enjoy?

Play:

• Parallel play: The toddler plays alongside, not with, other children.

• Toddlers play with:

  • Push-pull toys

  • Stick horses

  • Straddle trucks or cycles

  • A small gym

  • A slide

• They might also like:

  • Finger paints

  • Thick crayons

  • Chalk

  • Blackboard

  • Paper

  • Puzzles with large, simple pieces.

What are the red flags for toddler development?

Red Flags for Toddler Development:

• By 2 years: When playing with toys, the child tends to bang, drop, or throw them rather than use them for their purpose (e.g., cuddle dolls, build blocks).

• Lack or limited eye contact.

• Does not understand simple instructions.

• Not able to use a spoon or help with dressing.

• By 3 years old: Does not use simple sentences.