nutrition exam 2

what are the functions of water in the body’s fluids?

carries nutrients and waste products, participates in metabolic reactions, solvent, acts as a lubricant and cushion, maintains blood volume, body temp regulation, and blood pressure

by what process does the body regulate water intake and excretion?

hypothalamus: initiates drinking

brain and kidneys: regulate water excretion, renin and aldosterone decrease water and sodium excretion, ADH retains water in kidneys

signs of dehydration

mild: thirst, sudden weight loss, rough and dry skin, dry mouth throat and body linings, rapid pulse, low BP, lack of energy, weakness, impaired kidney function, reduced quantity of urine, concentrated urine, decreased mental functioning, decreased muscular work and athletic performance, fever or increased internal temp, fainting

severe: pale skin, bluish lips and fingertips, confusion, disorientation, rapid shallow breathing, weak rapid irregular pulse, thickening of blood, shock, seizures, coma, death

signs of water intoxication

mild: clear urine, peeing more than 8-10 times a day, nausea, vomiting, throbbing headache, fatigue, muscle weakness, cramps, twitching, mild swelling, puffy in hands, feet, or face

severe: confusion, disorientation, drowsiness, inability to concentrate, seizures, difficulty breathing, loss of consciousness, coma

how does body use its ions to help maintain fluid and electrolyte balance?

electrolyte solutions= ions of a salt in water

electrolyte balance regulated closely → proteins in cell membranes move ions into or out of cells and kidneys regulate sodium and water

how does the body use its ions to maintain acid-base balance?

electrolyte mixtures act as buffers - compounds that can reversibly combine with hydrogen ions to maintain a constant pH

kidneys play a primary role in mairitaing acid-base balance

what is bioavailability of minerals and the factors that influence it?

the proportion of an ingested mineral that your digestive tract actually absorbs and makes available for your body to use

factors: chemical form (organic molecules or ionic forms are absorbed more easily), dietary enhancers (certain compounds boost absorption), anti nutrients and inhibitors, mineral-mineral interactions, route of entry (IV vs oral), host and gut factors

unique characteristic of sodium?

primary extracellular cation responsible for regulating osmotic pressure outside of cells

major roles of sodium?

main balance of body water, acid-base homeostasis, nerve impulse transmission, and muscle contraction

significant food sources of sodium?

table salt, process meats, soups, canned goods, and restaurant meals

deficiency symptoms of sodium?

hyponatremia, muscle cramps, mental confusion, lethargy, altered personality

toxicity symptoms of sodium?

hypertension, fluid retention, and increased risk of CV disease

unique characteristic of chloride?

primary extracellular anion, moving closely with sodium

major roles of chloride?

maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, acts as a core component of hydrochloric acid in stomach digestion

significant food sources of chloride?

table salt, soy sauce, processed foods

deficiency symptoms of chloride?

similar to sodium, muscle weakness and metabolic alkalosis

toxicity symptoms of sodium?

dehydration and vomiting (disruption in blood pH balance)

unique characteristic of potassium?

primary intracellular cation, working opposite to sodium to maintain cellular integrity

major roles of potassium?

regulates fluid balance inside cells, maintains normal heart rhythm, nerve transmission, and skeletal muscle contraction

significant food sources of potassium?

bananas, potatoes, sweet potatoes, spinach, melons, tomatoes, and milk

deficiency symptoms of potassium?

hypokalemia, severe muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmias and slow down heart function

unique characteristic of calcium?

most abundant mineral in human body, with 99% stored in bones and teeth

major roles of calcium?

hydroxyapatite formation (bone/tooth structure), blood clotting cascade, muscle contraction, and nerve cell signaling

significant food sources of calcium?

milk, yogurt, cheese, fortified plant milks, tofu, dark green leafy veggies, sardines

deficiency symptoms of calcium?

Osteoporosis, increased bone fracture risk, muscle spasms (tetany), and rickets in children

toxicity symptoms of calcium?

Hypercalcemia, kidney stones, calcium deposits in soft tissues, and impaired absorption of other minerals

unique characteristic of phosphorous?

It acts as a primary buffer in cells and forms part of the backbone of genetic material

major roles of phosphorus?

Component of DNA, RNA, and phospholipids; crucial for ATP (energy) production and bone mineralization alongside calcium

significant food sources of phosphorus?

Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, nuts, and whole grains.

deficiency symptoms of phosphorus?

Rare but causes rickets-like bone loss, muscle weakness, and fatigue

toxicity symptoms of phosphorus?

Hyperphosphatemia, which can bind calcium and accelerate bone loss or calcify soft tissues

unique characteristic of magnesium?

It functions as a critical enzyme cofactor for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body

major roles of magnesium?

Needed for protein synthesis, stabilizing ATP structure, muscle relaxation, nerve conduction, and immune health

significant food sources of magnesium?

Nuts, seeds, legumes, spinach, whole grains, and dark chocolate

deficiency symptoms of magnesium?

Muscle cramps, irregular heartbeat, seizures, and increased metabolic disorders

toxicity symptoms of magnesium?

Diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramping (typically from over-supplementation)

unique characteristic of iron?

dual dietary forms (heme and non-heme iron), absorption regulators, strict internal regulation

major roles of iron?

oxygen transport and storage, cellular energy production, enzymatic cofactor

significant food sources of iron?

organ meats, clams, oysters, mussels, beef, pork, lamb, dark meat chicken, turkey, sardines, tuna, fortified breakfast cereals, breads, grains, legumes, spinach, kale, Swiss chard, tofu, tempeh, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, mollasses

unique characteristics of zinc?

• Required by more individual enzymes than any other mineral in the human body.

• Shares an intestinal absorption pathway with iron and copper; large doses of zinc will directly outcompete and block the absorption of copper.

  • Undergoes enteropancreatic circulation (recycled from the pancreas into the digestive tract and back into the body).

major roles of zinc?

• Serves as a structural and catalytic cofactor for over 300 metalloenzymes.

• Maintains immune integrity by regulating T-lymphocyte maturation and activation.

• Stabilizes DNA structures via "zinc fingers" to regulate gene expression.

  • Crucial for tissue growth, wound healing, and taste perception (constituent of the salivary protein gustin)

significant food sources of zinc?

Oysters (highest source), crab, beef, pork, dark meat poultry, pumpkin seeds, and legumes

deficiency symptoms of zinc?

Hypogeusia (loss of taste/smell), severely delayed wound healing, growth retardation/stunting, delayed sexual maturation in adolescents, alopecia (hair loss), skin lesions, and frequent opportunistic infections

toxicity symptoms of zinc?

• Acute: Nausea, severe vomiting, abdominal cramping, and bloody diarrhea.

  • Chronic: High intake suppresses the immune system, lowers HDL ("good") cholesterol, and directly causes a secondary copper deficiency

unique characteristics of iodine?

• The only mineral that functions strictly as an integral component of hormones (Thyroxine/T4 and Triiodothyronine/T3).

  • Highly dependent on geographic soil levels; heavily fortified in national food supplies to prevent widespread public health crises

major roles of iodine?

• Directly regulates the body's basal metabolic rate (BMR) through thyroid hormones.

  • Controls core body temperature, growth, nerve/muscle function, and fetal neurological development.

significant food sources of iodine?

Iodized salt, marine seafood, seaweed (kelp), dairy products (due to iodine sanitizers used in milk processing), and eggs

deficiency symptoms of iodine?

• Adults: Goiter (visible enlargement of the thyroid gland as it struggles to capture iodine), sluggishness, weight gain, cold intolerance, and hypothyroidism.

• Infants (Congenital): Cretinism, which causes severe, irreversible mental retardation and physical stunting if a mother is deficient during pregnancy

toxicity symptoms of iodine?

Ironically mimics deficiency; overexposure can cause thyroid gland inflammation, goiter, and suppression of thyroid hormone synthesis

unique characteristics of fluoride?

• Considered non-essential for life or reproduction, but absolutely essential for optimal health and dental integrity.

• Primarily delivered via municipal tap water infrastructure rather than raw food consumption.

major roles of fluoride?

• Replaces the hydroxyl group in bone and tooth structures to form fluorapatite, making teeth harder and highly resistant to demineralization by bacterial acids.

• Promotes the remineralization of early enamel lesions.

significant food sources of fluoride?

Fluoridated municipal tap water, brewed black teas, marine fish with edible bones, and dental care products (toothpaste/rinses)

deficiency symptoms of fluoride?

Rapid development of dental caries (cavities) and widespread tooth decay, potentially leading to weakened bone integrity in older adults

toxicity symptoms of fluoride?

• Fluorosis: Permanent mottling, pitting, and chalky white discoloration of the teeth if excess fluoride is ingested during tooth development (under age 8).

• Skeletal Fluorosis: Dense, stiff, and brittle bones caused by massive chronic overexposure.

what populations are at risk of mineral deficiencies?

• Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: High physiological demands for iron, calcium, and iodine frequently lead to depletion.

• Young Children (Under 5): Rapid growth and development increase needs for iron and zinc, making them vulnerable to stunting and anemia.

• People with Restrictive Diets: Vegans and vegetarians face higher risks of iron and zinc deficiency due to lower absorption rates of non-heme minerals from plant sources.

• Older Adults: Decreased stomach acid and reduced intestinal absorption impair the uptake of essential minerals like calcium and magnesium.

• Individuals with Digestive Disorders: Conditions like celiac disease, Crohn's disease, or bariatric surgery damage the gut lining and disrupt normal mineral absorption.

• Athletes: Intense physical training increases mineral loss through sweat and elevated metabolic turnover, particularly for iron and magnesium.

what are the appropriate uses, advantages, and disadvantages of vitamin-mineral supplements?

appropriate uses/advantages: filling deficiencies, life stages and special needs (ex: folic acid for pregnancy or via D for breastfed infants), medical conditions, convenience (if restricted food intake)

disadvantages/risks: toxicity, side effects, drug interactions, false security (cannot rely solely on supplements, still need to eat nutritious foods), lack of whole food benefits

what is the regulation and marketing of dietary supplements?

food classifications (subcategory of food rather than pharmaceutical drug), no pre-market approval, manufacturer responsibility, claim restrictions (cannot claim to treat, prevent, diagnose, or cure diseases, can only make structure function claims), post-market oversight (by FDA)

what should nutrition look like prior to pregnancy?

full nutrient stores are essential, establish habits of achieving and maintaining a heathy body weight, choose an adequate and balanced diet, be physically active, receive regular medical care, avoid harmful influences

what should nutrition look like during pregnancy?

ample carbs: 175 + grams/day

fiber: alleviates constipation

protein: 25 grams/day or higher

essential fatty acids

folate and vitamin b 12 needed in large amounts for roles in cell reproduction

vitamin d and calcium for bones

iron (regulated by placenta), zinc, and nutrient supplements recommended

first trimester energy needs are the same, second trimester requires additional 340-350 cals/day, third trimester requires additional 450 cals/day

avoid: high mercury fish, raw/undercooked proteins, caffeine (less than 200mg) and alcohol

what are the potential effects of low birthweight on an infant?

immediate short-term effects: breathing difficulties, temperature control issues, feeding and digestion problems, infections, metabolic and blood issues, brain complications

long-term health and developmental effects: growth and development delayed and learning challenges, chronic conditions like type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure, mental health (increased risk for ADHD, anxiety, and depression)

what is the impact of nutrient deficiencies during critical periods of development?

impaired brain growth, cognitive and behavioral deficits, socioemotional struggles

iron: deficiency leads to anemia, fatigue, poor concentration, long term mental and motor delays

iodine: deficiency can cause severe, irreversible cognitive and neurological deficits

folate: raise risk of neural tube defects

protein and B vitamins: causes structural malformations or severe growth stunting

long term: chronic disease risk raised, lower success economically in the future

how do energy and nutrient needs change for non-pregnant, pregnant, and lactating women?

non-pregnant: based on standard baseline levels determined by age, BMI, and physical activity, adequate daily intake of iron, calcium, and vitamin D

pregnant women: normal during 1st trimester, 340 extra cals/day in 2nd trimester, 450 extra kcals/day in 3rd trimester, focus of oleate, iron, calcium, and vitamin D

lactating women: first 6 months= extra 330 kcal/day, second 6 months: extra 400 kcal/day, drink about 13 cups of water a day, calcium and protein and vitamins a, b12, and d important

how can pregnant women supplement their diets?

ample carbs: 175+ grams/day

fibers: alleviates constipation

protein: 25+ grams/day

essential fatty acids

folate and vitamin b 12 (protect against Neural tube defects, either from supplements or natural sources)

vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, multivitamin-mineral supplements (especially if high risk)

food assistance programs: Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) → offers food assistance, counseling, and healthcare connections; Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

what is the appropriate weight gain and rate of weight gain during pregnancy based on pre pregnancy weight status?

underweight → 28-40 lbs (single birth), insufficient data for twin birth

healthy weight → 25-35 lbs (single birth), 37-54 lbs (twin birth)

overweight → 15-25 lbs (single birth), 31-50 lbs (twin birth)

obese → 11-20 lbs (single birth), 25-42 lbs (twin birth)

what is the rationale for nutritional needs and weight gain of pregnant adolescents?

dual growth demand (adolescents and baby), nutrition competition, high risk of deficiencies (because teens often eat irregulary, skip meals, or diet), weight gain prevents lower birth weight and optimizies outcomes for mom and baby (baby gets proper nutrition and mom can continue to grow as an adolescent)

*adolescents likely to be deficient in vitamin b12, d, folate, calcium, iron and less likely to receive early prenatal care, more likely to smoke during pregnancy

*adolescents also have higher rates of stillbirths, preterm births, low birthweight infants and should gain 35-pound for normal pre pregnancy BMI

what is the reason for cravings and aversions during pregnancy?

rapid hormonal shifts, heightened sensory perception, and evolutionary protective mechanisms (avoiding toxins and getting more nutrients)

how do physiological conditions, like nausea and constipation, relate to pregnancy and what are some strategies for treating these conditions?

rising hormones slow down your digestive system and the growing uterus puts physical pressure on your bowels

nauseous because of slow digestion and released stomach muscles

treat nausea: eat small meals, choose plain foods, sip fluids

treat constipation: increase fiber, drink plenty of water, stay active, use safe aids like stool softeners

what are some strategies to avoid negative outcomes associated with environmental contaminants, food borne illness, and alcohol during pregnancy?

completely avoid alcohol, no safe amount (can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders), choose other beverages or mocktails

prevent food borne illness with safe temps (keep refrigerator below 40 and throughly cook food to prevent listeriosis), avoid unpasteurized items, reheat high risk foods, smart seafood choices (avoid high mercury fish or raw fish/sushi), and practice good kitchen hygiene (wash hands, knives, and cutting boards especially if they are in contact with raw foods)

to avoid environmental containments, use safe storage (glass, ceramic, stainless steel), filter and test water, read personal care labels (fragrance free and avoid products with paragons/phthalates), and limit toxin exposure (stay away from lead, chemicals, and smoke)

what are the advantages of breastfeeding for mothers and infants?

mothers: contracts uterus, delays return of regulation ovulation (lightening birth intervals), conserves iron stores, may protect against breast and ovarian cancer, reduces risk of diabetes

infants: provides appropriate composition and balance of nutrients with high bioavailability, provide hormones that promote physiological development, improves cognitive development, protects against a variety of of infections and illness, Amy protect against some chronic diseases (diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, asthma, and hypertension), protects against food allergies, supports healthy weight, reduces risk of SIDS, can pass antibodies

describe the composition of breast milk, infant formula, and cow’s milk

breast milk: 39% carbs, 55% fats, 6% protein

infant formula: 42% carbs, 49% fats, 9% protein

cow’s milk: 29% carbs, 51% fat, 20% protein

*note that cow’s milk has so much more protein which would be hard on an infant’s immature kidneys

what is the growth rate and nutrient needs of infants?

birthweight doubles by 5 months, triples by 1 year

nutrients: energy nutrients (carb=lactose to enhance calcium absorption, EFA’s- linoleic and linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, DHA), vitamin and minerals critical to growth (like vitamin A, D, and calcium), infants need more than twice as much of most nutrients as an adult (100 cal/kg/day), water (mostly provided by breast milk/formula)

what are the recommendations for specific dietary supplements during infancy?

Vit D:400 IU per day (especially if breastfed)

Iron: for exclusively breastfed infants or preterm/low birth weight infants (will need 2-3 mg/kg/day starting by 1 month of age)

fluoride: will only be prescribed after 6 months if drinking water source is not fluoridated

vit K: single dose at birth

what is the timeline and rationale for adding solids to an infants diet?

solid foods provide nutrients no longer supplied adequately by

breast milk/formula

• 4-6 months: experience new tastes

– Iron fortified cereal (rice)

– Add pureed foods

• 6-8 months: finger feed, pincher grasp, drink from cup

– Add textured fruits and veggies

– Add starches (bread, cereals, rice, crackers)

• 8-10 months: hold own bottle, reach for food and spoon

– Add yogurt

– Add table foods (cooked veggies/fruits, cheese, eggs, finely cut

meats/fish)

• 10-12 months: self-feeding with spoon

– Give variety of nutrient-dense table foods (no added salt, sugar, spices

what are the guidelines for feeding an infant (what should you include or avoid)?

include: foods to provide iron (fortified cereals, meats, legumes), zinc (protein foods, animal derived), vit C (fruits, veggies), provide a variety, balance, and moderation

for ex: portions of scrambled eggs, whole wheat toast, reduced fat milk, yogurt, fruit, chopped meat, rice/pasta, veggies, grilled cheese are good starting options

avoid: sweets, canned veggies, honey, corn syrup, and foods that might cause choking

what are the energy and nutrient needs during childhood and associated growth trends?

energy: needs vary widely, depending on growth and physical activity

1 year old: 800 kcal/day

6 year old (active): 1600 kcal/day

10 year old (active): 2000 kcal/day

nutrient needs: carb needs are same for adults after 1 year, fiber is proportional to energy intake

1-3 years old: fat is 30-40% of energy

4-18 years old: fat is 25% to 35% of energy

protein and vit/mineral needs increase slightly with age

foods should provide 7-10 mg iron/day

vit D is obtained thru fortified milk, cereals, and supplements

what are the effects of hunger on children’s behavior and health?

short-term hunger: impairs child’s ability to pay attention and to be productive

long-term hunger: impairs growth and immune defenses

iron deficiency: affects behavior and intellectual performance

other nutrient deficiencies can cause irritability, aggression, sadness, withdrawal

*should assess diet when children exhibit abnormal appearance or behavior

what are the causes, symptoms, and treatment of iron deficiency?

causes: blood loss, increased needs (pregnancy and breastfeeding), poor intake, poor absorption

symptoms: fatigue, shortness of breath, planeness, fast heartbeat, dizziness

treatment: oral iron supplements, IV iron, dietary changes, treating root cause

what are symptoms of lead toxicity and prevention methods?

symptoms: impairment of balance, motor development, and nerve message relay to a from the brain, irritability, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, hearing loss, seizures, high blood pressure, memory issues, headaches

prevention: clean lead dust, run cold tap water, remove shoes at door, practice good hygiene, maintain good nutrition

what are food allergies and their symptoms?

allergies that typically diminish with age, food protein or other large molecule absorbed into blood and elicits an immunologic response

rising peanut allergy prevalence

detecting allergy: requires medical testing and food challenges

immediate or delayed reactions, anaphylactic shock is life-threatening whole-body allergic reaction, prevention after exposure with epinephrine

describe hyperactivity and its potential causes?

• a state of increased movement, restless energy, and impulsive actions that are inappropriate for the setting, affects behavior and learning

• constant motion, excessive talking, difficulty staying still

  • potential causes: some food additives (ex: food colorings), no convincing evidence that sugar causes or worsens, ADHD, caffeine or nicotine

what is are the casual factors, health impacts, prevention, and treatment of childhood obesity?

casual factors: poor nutrition, physical inactivity, genetics and family history, sleep and stress, socioeconomic factors

health impacts: physical complications (higher risk of Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure,re high cholesterol, asthma, sleep apnea), joint and bone pain, mental health (increased anxiety, depression, bullying etc.), long-term risks (increased rate of heart disease and stroke)

prevention: balanced diets, regular activity, limit screen Tim, healthy sleep routines

treatment: lifestyle changes, medical guidance, specialized medications and bariatric surgery

what are the roles of parents and children in development of health eating habits?

parents: setting the food environment (stock pantry and fridge with nutritious options), role model healthy eating behaviors, establish structure and routines (regular family meals), practice responsive feedings (no strict food bans, severe restrictions or pressure to clean a plate, offer balanced choices without coercion), involve kids in food shopping and meal prep

children: develop self-regulation on natural hunger cues, participate in choices (taste test new goods and help in kitchen), practice autonomy (make indecent and mindful food choices)

what are the characteristics of school breakfast and school lunch programs?

they are federally assisted meal initiatives in the US deigned to provide nutritious good to children, includes income tiers (free meals, reduced price, and paid meals depending on where you fall along poverty line), administered nationally by Food and Nutrition Serivice of the US department of agriculture

meals must align with federal nutrition standards base don Dietary Guidelines for Americans, emphasizing whole grains, fruits, veggies, and fluid milk while limiting sodium and added sugars, lunches should supply at least 1/3 of recommended daily levels for key nutrients

Why do adolescents have increased energy and nutrient needs?

they go thru rapid growth spurts, have changing body characteristics as a result of puberty, rapid skeletal growth (need more vit D and calcium), tissue and muscles are expanding, hormonal changes, and many adolescents have high activity levels

what nutrients are likely to be deficient in adolescents' diets and why?

• Iron

  • Why it happens: Rapid growth spurts increase the body's need for red blood cells. Adolescent girls face higher risk due to blood loss from menstruation. Teens may also skip meals, follow calorie-restrictive weight-loss diets, or adopt plant-based diets without careful planning.

• Calcium

  • Why it happens: Peak bone mass develops during the teenage years, greatly raising calcium demands. Many teens replace milk and dairy products with sugary sodas or other beverages. Adolescent girls avoid dairy products for various dietary reasons.

• Vitamin D

  • Why it happens: Teens often consume insufficient amounts of fortified milk and fish. Spending more time indoors and using sunscreen limit natural skin synthesis from sunlight exposure.

• Zinc

  • Why it happens: Puberty and tissue growth spike the biological demand for zinc. Teens often eat processed or unbalanced fast food instead of whole foods. Plant-based diets also contain compounds like phytic acid that reduce zinc absorption.