History of Neurophysiology, Brain Imaging, and Philosophy of Mind

Vocabulary flashcards covering the historical development of neurophysiology, modern brain imaging methodologies, sex differences in neural structure, face processing disorders, and schools of thought on the mind-brain problem.

Smith Papyrus

An ancient Egyptian scroll representing the earliest known text connecting the brain to behavior, which included accounts of a battlefield physician deciding not to treat severe head injuries.

Plato

A 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who proposed that the soul had three parts, with the part responsible for reasoning situated in the brain.

Aelius Galenus

A 2nd-century BCE Roman physician who concluded the voice comes from the brain after severing pig throat nerves, proposed nerves are hollow tubes carrying "spirits," and identified the sympathetic nervous system.

Andreas van Wesel (Vesalius)

The father of human anatomy who identified three brain ventricles (back for memory, middle for thought and judgment, front for sensory information) and dismissed the cerebellum due to its resemblance to intestines.

Five most fundamental discoveries that laid the foundation for neurophysiology

confirmation of cerebrospinal axis

reflex arc

localization of brain function

discovery of neurons

neurons store and transfer information electrochemically

Discovery of localization of brain function

-up until 19th century, everyone thought the brain operated on the concept of equipotentiality

-several sub-discoveries led to a different view of the brain- localization

-1820s- French physiologist Jean Flourens- considered to be the father of experimental brain science- demonstrated that different brain structures serve different functions (cerebellum- fine motor movements, medulla- heart rate and respiration)

-1861- French pathologist Paul Broca demonstrated that the left frontal lobe dominated speech production

-1874- German physician Karl Wernicke discovered that a nearby but completely separate part of the left hemisphere specializes in language comprehension

Confirmation of Cerebrospinal Axis

A discovery proposed by Jiri Prochaska in 1784 stating the spinal cord and central core control reflexes, shifting scientific understanding from top-down to bottom-up processing.

Reflex Arc

A neural sequence identified by Marshall Hall in 1832 consisting of: stimulus, sensory receptor, afferent nerves, interneurons of spinal cord, efferent nerves, and musculoskeletal system.

Equipotentiality

The pre-19th-century view that each part of the brain possesses equal potential to carry out every function.

Localization of Brain Function

The principle that distinct brain structures carry out specific functions, supported by the work of Jean Flourens, Paul Broca, and Karl Wernicke.

Jean Flourens

An 1820s French physiologist regarded as the father of experimental brain science who demonstrated that the cerebellum controls fine motor movements and the medulla regulates heart rate and respiration.

Paul Broca

A French pathologist who demonstrated in 1861 that the left frontal lobe dominates speech production.

Karl Wernicke

A German physician who discovered in 1874 that a distinct area of the left cerebral hemisphere specializes in language comprehension.

Discovery of the Neuron

The finding that the nervous system consists of an interconnected network of individual nerve cells engaged in near-constant communication.

Emil duBois

A Swiss-German physiologist who used the analogy of electric eels to show how human nerve signals could operate electrically.

Hermann von Helmholtz

A scientist who measured the conduction velocity of frog leg nerves at approximately $108\,\text{km/hour}$ ($67\,\text{mph}$), proving that neural transmission is a relatively slow electrochemical process rather than an electrical wire.

Neurophysiology

The branch of physiology that specializes in the study of the nervous system.

Neuropsychology

The branch of psychology dedicated to studying the relationship between the brain and behavior.

Cognitive Neuropsychology

A sub-branch of neuropsychology relying on information processing models to examine how the brain influences behavior without waiting for brain-injured subjects.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A diagnostic method developed by Hans Berger in 1924 that records the brain's electrical energy; helpful in somnology and wave measurement but insufficiently accurate for functional localization.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

A functional imaging technique developed starting in the late 1950s that tracks an injected radioactive glucose-like tracer emitting positrons that interact with particles to produce detectable gamma rays.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A neuroimaging technique first measured by David Cohen in 1968 that captures magnetic fields surrounding the scalp using a 300-sensor helmet.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A magnetic imaging modality using radio waves to detect blood flow at an atomic level rather than directly measuring magnetic fields.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

An imaging technique that measures blood oxygenation levels across brain regions, identifying active areas by their increased oxygen consumption.

Hemodynamism

The study of blood movement within the body, used as the basis for functional brain measurements in PET scans and fMRI.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TCSM)

A device that creates temporary "virtual lesions" with pinpoint control by delivering mild electrical currents to local neurons, temporarily altering regional cerebral function.

Larry Cahill

A researcher who conducted 2004 PET studies showing men remember the gist while women recall details during violent films (starting in less than $300\,\text{milliseconds}$), and who led the "Sex Matters" campaign.

Neuropsychiatry

The application of cognitive neuropsychology principles to investigate mental disorders as breakdowns in normal cognitive processing.

Capgras Delusion

A psychiatric condition first noted in 1918 where an individual believes a close friend or family member has been replaced by an identical imposter.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological condition resulting from brain injury characterized by an inability to consciously recognize familiar faces, despite preserved autonomic skin conductance responses.

Blindsight

The capacity of individuals with damaged visual cortices to detect object locations or emotional facial expressions unconsciously via primitive subcortical pathways and the amygdala.

Mind-Brain Problem

The foundational question in psychology investigating whether and how the conscious mind is distinct from the physical brain.

Dualism

The classical philosophical perspective asserting that the mind exists independently of the physical body.

Conditions for Free Will

Three criteria proposed by Henrik Walter: 1) the agent could have chosen otherwise, 2) no external force compelled the action, and 3) the action resulted from rational deliberation.

Materialism

The philosophical viewpoint (also called physicalism, reductionism, or monism) asserting that the mind is merely an epiphenomenon produced by the physical brain.

Epiphenomenon

A secondary symptom or by-product; in materialist philosophy, the conscious mind is described as a by-product of underlying physical brain operations.

Richard Dawkins

An evolutionary biologist who published "The Selfish Gene" (1976), asserting that living organisms are survival vessels created by DNA molecules to perpetuate themselves.

Philosophical Functionalism

A school of thought stating that the mind is the informational software of the brain hardware, capable of being transferred or replicated onto another physical medium.

Cybernetics

The study of control and communication in electronic machines to simulate or replace human functions, demonstrating that information can transcend its physical substrate.

The Mary Problem

A thought experiment formulated by Australian philosopher Frank Jackson involving a neurophysiologist raised in a black-and-white room to explore whether experiencing qualia provides new knowledge.

The Zombie Problem

A thought experiment proposed by David Chalmers involving an identical behavioral and physical replica of a person that completely lacks conscious awareness and qualia.

Ben Libet

A researcher who demonstrated that the neural decision to act takes place before an individual becomes consciously aware of deciding to act.

Global Workspace Model

A cognitive model proposing that consciousness functions like a stage manager to coordinate, synchronize, and disperse information across the mental workspace.

Information Distribution Network (IDN)

A neural framework identified by Stan Dehaene showing localized transient activity for subliminal stimuli and broad, synchronized multi-region activation when stimuli cross the threshold into conscious awareness.

Qualia

The rich, subjective, and vivid conscious impressions that comprise human internal sensory experiences.

Embodied Cognition

A process of broad, automatic cerebral activation in which perceptual, memory, and motor networks associated with past experiences activate during the processing of related words or stimuli, creating qualia.