Psychology: Goals, Theories, Research Methods, and Key Concepts

What are psychology's four goals?

Describe, explain, predict, and control.

What is nativism?

Abilities are inborn.

What is philosophical empiricism?

all knowledge is acquired through experience

What do nativism and empiricism address?

The nature-versus-nurture debate.

What is monism?

Mind and brain are ultimately one.

What is dualism?

The mind and body are separate but interact.

Phrenology & Broca

Supported localization, where specific brain areas perform specific functions.

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud's theory that unconscious conflicts and experiences influence behavior.

Unconscious

Mental processes occurring outside conscious awareness

Gestalt psychology

Focuses on whole patterns rather than individual parts.

Watson's criticism

Mental processes were subjective and difficult to measure objectively.

Behaviorism

Psychology should focus on observable behavior and environmental influences.

Operant conditioning

Behavior changes based on its consequences.

Humanism

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and human potential.

Maslow

Best known for the hierarchy of needs and self-actualization.

Carl Rogers

Developed person-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy and acceptance.

Cognitive revolution

WWII increased information-processing research, while computers provided a model for the mind.

Cognitive psychology

Studies memory, attention, thinking, language, perception, and problem-solving.

Feminist psychology

Karen Horney challenged male-centered psychological theories.

Early sexism critiques

Women were often excluded, while male experiences were treated as universal.

Developmental psychology

Studies physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes across life.

Piaget

Showed that children's thinking develops through stages and differs from adults.

Social psychology

Studies how people and social situations influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Historical influence

WWII and the Holocaust increased research on obedience, conformity, prejudice, and groups.

Multicultural vs. cross-cultural

Multicultural examines groups within society; cross-cultural compares cultures

Mamie & Kenneth Clark

Known for doll studies examining racial identity and children's racial preferences.

Clinical vs. counseling psychology

Clinical focuses on mental disorders; counseling focuses on adjustment, life issues, and growth.

APA

The American Psychological Association, a major U.S. professional organization for psychology.

Biopsychology

Studies how the brain, genes, hormones, and nervous system affect behavior.

Master's

School counselor, behavioral specialist, mental health counselor, and some research jobs.

PhD/PsyD

Licensed psychologist, clinical psychologist, counseling psychologist, professor, or researcher.

Benefits of diversity

More perspectives, representative research, cultural understanding, and effective care.

What is inductive reasoning?

Uses specific observations to form a general conclusion

What is deductive reasoning

Uses a general principle to make a specific prediction.

What's the scientific method

A systematic process for asking questions, testing hypotheses, analyzing results, and developing scientific knowledge.

What are the four steps in the scientific method?

Formulate a hypothesis → conduct research → analyze results → communicate findings.

What's a theory?

A well-supported explanation that organizes observations and findings and helps generate predictions.

What's a hypothesis?

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables or what will happen.

What's falsifiability?

A hypothesis must be stated so that it is possible to test and potentially prove it wrong

What's research?

A systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to answer a question.

What's the difference between a sample and a population?

Population: The entire group a researcher wants to understand. Sample: A smaller group selected from that population.

What are the three major research designs?

Descriptive, correlational, and experimental research.

What's archival research, and what are its pros and cons?

Research using existing records or documents.

Pros: Can study past behavior and is often inexpensive.

Cons: Records may be incomplete, inaccurate, or difficult to interpret.

What's naturalistic observation, and what are its pros and cons?

Observing behavior in its natural setting.

Pros: Shows realistic behavior.

Cons: Researchers have little control and cannot determine cause and effect.

What's survey research, and what are its pros and cons?

Collecting information by asking people questions.

Pros: Efficient and can study large groups.

Cons: People may give inaccurate or biased answers.

What's a case study, and what are its pros and cons?

An in-depth investigation of one person, group, or situation. Pros: Provides detailed information. Cons: Findings may not generalize to other people.

What's the big drawback of descriptive research?

It can describe behavior but cannot determine relationships or cause and effect.

What's correlational research, and what's a correlation?

Correlational research examines the relationship between variables. A correlation shows the direction and strength of that relationship.

What can correlational research do that descriptive research can't?

It can determine whether two or more variables are related.

What's a correlation coefficient?

A number from -1.00 to +1.00 that shows the strength and direction of a correlation.

What's a positive correlation, and how is one expressed mathematically?

As one variable increases, the other tends to increase. It is represented by r > 0.

What's a negative correlation, and how is one expressed mathematically?

As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease. It is represented by r < 0.

What's the big drawback of correlational research?

Correlation does not prove causation. A correlation cannot tell us which variable caused the other.

What's a confounding variable?

An outside variable that could affect the results and provide another explanation for the findings.

What's experimental research?

Research in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable.

What's an operational definition?

A precise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

What are independent variables and dependent variables?

Independent variable: The variable the researcher changes or controls. Dependent variable: The variable the researcher measures.

What's the difference between an experimental group and a control group?

Experimental group: Receives the treatment or manipulation. Control group: Does not receive the experimental treatment and provides a comparison.

Why do we include a control group in an experiment?

To provide a baseline for comparison and help determine whether the independent variable caused the results.

What's random assignment, and why is it used?

Randomly placing participants into different groups. It helps reduce preexisting differences and bias between groups.

What's a frequency distribution?

A table or graph showing how often each score or value occurs in a dataset.

What are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics?

Descriptive: Summarize the data collected. Inferential: Use sample data to draw conclusions about a larger population.

What are measures of central tendency, and why are they important?

Mean, median, and mode. They identify the typical or central value in a dataset.

Mean

Add all scores and divide by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score when values are ordered.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

What's the problem with the mean, and what's often done to deal with it?

The mean can be strongly affected by extreme scores/outliers. Researchers may use the median, which is less affected by extreme values.

After a researcher's study confirms a hypothesis, what do other researchers often do?

They replicate the study to determine whether the findings can be reproduced.

What are reliability and validity?

Reliability: A measure produces consistent results. Validity: A measure actually measures what it is intended to measure.

What's an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A committee that reviews research involving humans to ensure the study is ethical and protects participants.

What's informed consent?

A process in which participants agree to participate after receiving important information about the study.

What information are participants provided with when seeking informed consent?

Information about the purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, confidentiality, and their right to refuse or withdraw.

Why is deception sometimes used in psychological research, and what's done to compensate for it?

Deception may be used when knowing the true purpose could change participants' behavior. Researchers must minimize harm and debrief participants afterward, explaining the true purpose and deception.

What's the theory of evolution by natural selection?

Organisms with heritable traits that help them survive and reproduce are more likely to pass those traits to future generations.

What is genetic variation?

Differences in genes and traits among individuals in a population.

What are chromosomes and DNA?

Chromosomes are structures that contain genetic information. DNA is the molecule that carries that genetic information.

What's a gene, allele, dominant allele, and recessive allele?

A gene is a section of DNA that influences a trait. An allele is a version of a gene. Dominant alleles are expressed when present; recessive alleles are expressed when two copies are present.

What are genotype and phenotype?

Genotype: An individual's genetic makeup.

Phenotype: The observable traits produced by genes and the environment.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles

What is dominant-recessive inheritance, and how do you use a Punnett square?

A dominant allele can determine the phenotype when present, while a recessive trait usually requires two recessive alleles. A Punnett square predicts possible offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

What are three gene-environment interactions?

Range of reaction, genetic-environment correlation, and gene-environment interaction. They describe how genes and environments work together to influence traits and behavior.

What's the nervous system?

The body's communication system that receives, processes, and sends information throughout the body.

What's the resting potential?

The neuron's stable, negatively charged state when it is not firing, usually around -70 mV.

How is a neuron's electrical charge changed from negative to positive?

When sufficiently stimulated, sodium (Na⁺) ions enter the neuron, making its inside less negative and briefly positive.

What happens when a signal arrives at a neuron?

The neuron receives the signal through its dendrites, and if the signal is strong enough, it can trigger an action potential.

What's an action potential?

A rapid electrical impulse that travels down the neuron's axon.

When does an action potential occur?

When the neuron's stimulation reaches its threshold level.

What's the all-or-none law?

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all; the strength of the action potential does not vary.

What effect do more intense stimuli have on neurons?

They cause neurons to fire more frequently, not with stronger action potentials.

What happens to neurotransmitters remaining at a synapse?

They may be reabsorbed through reuptake, broken down by enzymes, or diffuse away.

Sympathetic

activates the body during stress.

Parasympathetic

calms the body and supports rest and digestion.

What's an electroencephalogram (EEG)

A device that records the brain's electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.

What's computerized axial tomography (CT)?

A brain-imaging technique that uses X-rays and computer processing to create detailed images of brain structures.

What's diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?

A brain-imaging method that tracks the movement of water through white-matter fibers, showing connections between brain areas.

What's positron emission tomography (PET)?

A scan that uses a radioactive tracer to show brain activity and how different areas use substances such as glucose.

What's functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A technique that measures changes in blood oxygen levels to show which brain areas are active.

What's transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A technique that uses magnetic pulses to temporarily stimulate or disrupt activity in specific areas of the brain.

What are three main areas of the brain?

The hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.