Psych 111.2 L9 (Motivation)

Motivation

An inner state that energizes people toward the fulfillment of a goal (people may hide motives, be unconscious of them)

Multiple determinants of Behavior

Not just one thing, could be personality, situations, genetics, etc

Multiple determinants of Motivation

• Biological

• Physiological

• Psychological

• Cultural

• Environmental

• Situational

Instinct Theory

(Evolutionary perspective) Things in the environment are “releasers” which lead to innate, pre-programmed responses; pushed by hard-wired desires

Environmental releaser — triggers→ fixed response pattern

Ex. Stickleback will attack those that comes into his territory

Ex. Baby herring gull will peck at parents feet so that they will feed them

Ex. Baby feels touch on lips and starts sucking

Drive (drive reduction) Theory

The notion that physiological needs arouse tension that motivates action (about tension reduction — the function you want to achieve isn’t innate but the drive is)

Biological need -> tension -> do something to reduce tension

Pushed by internal tensions

Can’t explain actions to increase tension

Ex. Hungry so find food

Arousal Theory

Strive to maintain an optimal level of arousal and seek stimulation if bored, relaxation if excited.

Pushed by boredom/anxiety

Ex. Seek stimulation if bored, relaxation if anxious

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Psychological principle stating that task performance increases with arousal (such as stress or excitement), but only up to an optimal point

● Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.

● People seek an optimum level of stimulation

Zuckerman’s sensation-seeking scale

Series of questions to determine your stimulation threshold (if you are a low or high sensation seeker

Incentive Theory

Rewards and punishments associated with different activities; extrinsic vs. intrinsic incentives

Pulled by rewards and punishments

Intrinsic Incentives

Activities that are an end unto themselves

• Drives created by individual, things you like doing

• E.g., eating, watching cartoons

Extrinsic Incentives

Activities with external rewards or punishments

• E.g., working, doing chores

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active (somewhat arbitrary; must usually satisfy bottom of pyramid before top, but can sometimes delay like hunger strikes)

Know each level

Psychological Needs

Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

Ex. water, air, food, sleep

Safety Needs

Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe

Ex. shelter, safety, job, security, health, law & order

Belongingness and love needs

Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation

Ex. Belongingness, love, affection, intimacy, family & friends, relationships

Esteem Needs

Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others

Ex. Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, status, respect

Self-actualization Needs

Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential

Ex. Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, pursue talent, personal growth, peak experiences, creativity, etc.

Self-Transcendence Needs

Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self

Belonging

Basic psychological need and a primary drive (affiliation need and need for intimacy)

Inherently social creatures — cooperation is important to survival

Effect of Loneliness

Direct physiological impact on the body (can kill us)

• More prone to illness, disease, and infections

• Lack social support to cope with illness

Social pain travels same neural pathways as physical pain

• Acetaminophen lessens social as well as physical pain

• The effects of social isolation or rejection are as real as thirst, hunger, or pain.

Ostracism

Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

Cannon and Washburn's (1912) Hunger Experiment

Washburn swallowed a balloon to record stomach contractions and pushed button to report hunger feelings

• Hunger feelings came at peak of contractions (contractions lead to hunger, not vice-versa)

Proof stomach is not the only reason for hunger signaling

• Hunger feelings came at peak of contractions (contractions lead to hunger, not vice-versa)

  • Even if stomachs are removed people get hungry

  • Amnesics will keep eating (because they forget they ate)

Monitoring Glucose Levels

Eating increases glucose levels in bloodstream

• Insulin is a hormone that controls our glucose levels

The Hunger-Regulation Cycle

When blood glucose is low, people become hungry; Food raises glucose, reducing hunger and eating

Orexin

Secreted by hypothalamus; triggers hunger

Leptin

Secreted by fat cells; sends signals to the brain diminishing the reward of food

Obestatin

Secreted by stomach; sends “full” signals to brain

Ghrelin

Secreted by an empty stomach; sends hunger signals to the brain

Insulin

Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose

PPY

Secreted by digestive tract; sends “not hungry” signals to brain

Role of the Hypothalamus

Regulates body temperature, release of hormones, and monitors glucose levels; Two areas of the hypothalamus, the lateral and ventromedial areas, play a central role in the hunger drive, the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

“Hunger center”, if stimulate these cells, animal eats and eats. Starve to death if LH is destroyed

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VH)

“Satiation center”, stimulate this and animal will not eat. Destroy VH and animal eats and eats

The Fat Rat

Lesions of the ventromedial hypothalamus destroy the brain's primary "satiety center," leading to a well-documented syndrome of hyperphagia (excessive eating), severe obesity, and metabolic dysfunction

Body Weights of Twins

Identical twins closer in weight than fraternal twins; Very close even when raised apart

Genetic influence: Bodies have a certain set point, must eat/exercise a little/lot to break away from set point

Obesity

54% of Americans are overweight, 19% are obese. BMI=adjusts weight according to height

Why it’s Difficult to Lose Weight

Habits are hard to break; when you go on a diet, bodies adjust (reducing basal metabolic rate), so it reduces the number of calories you burn; different plans work for different people; sleep issues can disrupt hormones, leading to weight gain or making weight harder to lose, etc.

Anorexia nervosa

 Eat way too little to maintain a healthy weight

– Mostly women (95%)

– About 1% of young women.

– Higher among college students.

– Partly genetic.

– Partly cultural (Western cultures, white women)

– Linked to low self-esteem

Warning signs of anorexia

Always wears layers, restricts foods, comments about being fat despite weight loss, has digestive issues, has food rituals, cooks without eating, doesn’t like to be seen eating, etc.

Effects of anorexia

Anemia, dizziness, coldness, sleep issues, menstrual issues, etc.

Bulimia

Binge and purge. Overeating followed by vomiting, laxatives, etc

– Also mostly women .

– 2% to 3% of women are affected (but one survey said 19% of female college students).

Role of the Media in eating disorders

Can tell impact of media because of certain trends:

• Affects women more than men.

• Affects Western cultures.

• Increased over time.

Fallon and Rozin Study

• Study with 500 students at UPenn, had line figures of men and women and would ask questions like which is ideal, which is closest to body, which would others prefer

• Women's ideal weight was less than real body weight, women thought men wanted them thinner than they actually preferred (men’s ideal and actual weight matched up more closely)

TV in Fiji (1995)

• Introduced American satellite television in remote parts of Fiji, showing link between media and EDs

• Bulimia rose 500% in 3 years

• 50% increase in description of themselves as “too fat”

• 30% more likely to be dieting

Physiological drive for sex

Primary drive (not necessarily a need) for survival of the species as important as hunger

• Big role played by hormones: e.g., testosterone, estrogen.

• And hypothalamus plays a role.

Testosterone

Testosterone maintains sex drive in adult males

Male Sex Drive Rat Studies

• The medial preoptic area is involved in sex drives

  • Castration decreases sex drives

  • Can be revived with testosterone injections to medial preoptic area can restore drive

  • Estrogen implantations causes lordosis behavior in castrated male rats

Estrogens

In non-human female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

Teen Sexuality

• Rates of teen (age 15-17) intercourse dropped in between 1995-2008

• Rate of contraception use increased

• Teen pregnancy rate dropped (by over 10%)

Reasons for Teen Intercourse

Ordered most to least:

Peer pressure (higher for girls)

Curiosity (higher for boys)

“Everyone is doing it” (higher for girls)

Pressure from boys

Love (higher for girls)

Sexual gratification (higher for boys)

Belongingness Motives

Need for affiliation and intimacy

Need for Affiliation

Desire to establish and maintain social contacts

Need for Intimacy

Desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication; involves self-disclosure

Self-disclosure

Sharing of intimate details about oneself to another person

• Typically reciprocal

• Women disclose more than men and elicit more than others

• Grows over time

• Determines how much you lie

Who People Lie To

People lie the most to strangers and acquaintances, then romantic partners, then friends/family, then spouses

Achievement Motivation

Secondary drive; Esteem motivation; A strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel

Can include a strong desire for power/influence over other people

Need for Power

Esteem Motivation; A strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over other people

Types of Motivation at Work

• Reward-Based Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation

• Equity Motivation

Reward-Based Motivation

Companies use incentive programs:

• Individualized incentives, time off or extra pay

• Small-group incentive plans, offering bonuses to work unit members for reaching goals

• Profit-sharing

• Recognition Programs (“Employee of the Month”)

• Pay-for-knowledge plans

Payment and Intrinsic Motivation

College students had 3 sessions with puzzles, some paid during second session, some were not, time spent puzzling during breaks was covertly recorded

• After payment productivity on break went up dramatically, then stopped getting paid would not continue puzzling on the break

• Unpaid group didn’t pass peak of paid group, but stayed higher once paid groups’ productivity fell

• If people are paid for a task they already enjoy, they may lose interest in it

Motivation and Perceptions of Fairness (Monkeys)

• Monkeys: feed side by side, one monkey gets cucumber, the other gets a grape

  • Monkey is initially satisfied with cucumber until it sees the other monkey got the grape which aggravates cucumber monkey, throws it

Cause of Lack of Motivation

• Students see little value in the course or its content.

• Students do not believe that their efforts will improve their performance.

• Students are demotivated by the structure and allocation of rewards.

• Students do not perceive the classroom climate as supportive.

• Students have other priorities that compete for their time and attention

Achievement Goal Theory (Growth Mindset)

Operating under a growth (not fixed) mindset:

Growth: Abilities and intelligence are malleable traits and can be improved

• More motivating for students - try harder

Fixed: Abilities and intelligence are innate and cannot change

Yeager & Dweck (2012)

• Students were taught growth mindset or fixed

  • Growth: had higher grades, lower aggression/stress, more challenging courses