Social, Developmental & Individual Differences MCT

What is Malthusianism?

The theory that resources increase linearly, and populations increase exponentially, eventually leading to population decline

What is a Malthusian crisis?

When insufficient resources lead to the slaughter of the weak by the strong.

What is eugenics?

The idea that we should stop certain people reproducing

What is psychometric reification?

Treating abstract concepts (such as IQ) as though they are concrete and measurable, and building explanations or research around it.

Why is fixed intelligence a potentially dangerous outlook?

Movements such as eugenics use fixed intelligence to sort worthy/unworthy people in an objective way

Rich, white people like eugenics because it flatters them as naturally superior, so they create and support one-off intelligence tests

What is the G factor?

A general correlation among different test scores, argued to be genetic and unchanging.

Undisputed correlation, but controversial interpretations.

What is the S factor?

Specific skills measured in an intelligence test that add up to make the G factor.

OR a person’s ability within one particular area (e.g. memory, attention span…)

What are age related norms?

A ‘normal range’ for an age group, used to offer extra help to children considered to be ‘falling behind’

What are some advantages of using IQ to measure intelligence?

Amazing predictive validity (wealth, lifespan, education)

Impressive test-retest reliability

What is the Flynn effect?

When IQ tests get ‘re-normed’ every few years because average scores keep rising. Cause is debated for a variety of reasons.

What are some validity issues with IQ?

Measuring non-G factors, IQ scores not fixed

What other factors can IQ tests measure?

Culture, anxiety, motivation, alertness, poverty

Why is it a problem that IQ scores change?

They are not measuring a fixed psychological property, making it severely limited at measuring G

What types of intelligence do modern studies suggest?

Emotional, numerical, spatial and verbal intelligence

How is a group defined?

Social sciences → “two or more individuals who percieve themselves as part of a unit and who influence each other and are independent”

Social identity → “defined in terms of those who identify as members of the group”

Why do people join groups?

• Social reasons

• Closeness

• Support

• Achievement of personal objectives

• Achievement of goals

Common-identity groups

Groups where people share a category

Common-bond groups

Groups where people share friendships

Cohesiveness

Barrett (2017) → “the strength of the bonds that hold members together and keep them as a group”

Entitativity

The degree to which people outside of the group can recognise members as being part of the group

Prototypical leader

Someone who follows group norms very closely.

More trusted, persuasive, perceived as more charismatic and effective

Zajonc’s theory of social facilitation (1965)

Suggests the presence of other people leads to an increase in arousal, meaning a dominant response could either be enhanced or impaired performance, depending on how well-practiced the dominant response is

Co-action effect

Someone doing the same action/competing against you.

Audience effect

Passive observers

What theories explain social facilitation effects?

• Evaluation apprehension model

• Distraction and conflict theory

• Explicit monitoring theory

  • Social loafing theory

What is the evaluation apprehension model?

Suggests the worry about performance is what affects performance

What is the distraction and conflict theory?

Suggests distraction increases arousal, due to conflict of paying attention to audience vs. paying attention to task

Explicit monitoring theory

Suggests bad performance comes from consciously monitoring movements which are usually automatic

What is social loafing theory?

Suggests the presence of others can decrease performance on group tasks as when more people join, less individual effort is required

Deindividuation

A psychological state when people become so immersed in the group they lose self-awareness and responsibility

What factors contribute to deindividuation?

• Anonymity

• Low risk of accountability or consequences

• Increased arousal

• Alcohol and drugs

Effects of social integration on health

Social integration has shown a greater effect on prolonging lifespan than behaviours such as reducing BMI, flu vaccinations, less alcohol and quitting smoking.

Social identity theory

• We incorporate groups into our identity or sense of self

• We show strong preferences for any group we belong to

• Minimal groups paradigm demonstrates strength of these effects

Behavioural explanations for effects of group membership on health

• Spouses tend to monitor/influence health (Lillard & Waite, 1955)

• Group norms that promote healthy behaviours

Psychosocial explanations for effects of group membership on health

• Social support reduces stress

• Being a member of a group leads to a greater sense of personal control, which leads to healthier behaviours

Physiological explanations for effects of group membership on health

• Supportive interactions improve cardiovascular and immune functions

Mediation effects

The portion of an exposure’s total effect on an outcome, transmitted through an intermediate variable known as the mediator

Mediation effects for groups and mental health

1. Cruwys, South, Greenaway & Haslam (2015)

Lack of identification with groups → Negative self-attributions → Depression

2. McIntyre, Wickham, Barr & Bentall (2017)

Lack of identification with groups → Low self-esteem → Paranoia & depression

Stress-buffering hypothesis (Elahi, McIntyre et al., 2018)

High neighbourhood identity has a mediative effect on self-esteem from financial stress, which in turn results in better mental health.

Examples of effects of social integration on mental health

• People from African & African-Caribbean backgrounds

  • Strong British identity + positive contact with white Britons = Lower paranoia

  • Strong British identity + negative contact with white Britons = Higher paranoia

  • Suggests effects of social factors and types of identity

• Individuals in drug programmes who identify as ‘recoverees’ have higher rates of recovery than those who identify as ‘substance users

What are different types of group decision making?

• Brainstorming

• Minority influence

• Leadership

Group think

Faulty thinking in groups that means its more important the group agrees than that the group makes a good decision → desire for harmony or conformity

Group polarisation

Tendency for groups of like-minded people to adopt more extreme positions than the attitudes and actions of individual group members

Brainstorming

Very little evidence of effectiveness due to:

1. Evaluation apprehension - concern about criticism

2. Social loafing

3. Unknown standard of effort

4. Production blocking - competitivity to have ideas heard interferes with producing good ideas

Minority influence

When a numerical minority changes the attitudes and beliefs of the majority. Achieved through:

1. Consistency

2. Confidence

3. Appearing unbiased

4. Resisting social pressure

Transactional leadership

Motivates through clear expectations, using rewards and corrective actions

Transformational leadership

Able to inspire and motivate through shared vision and encouragement

Laissez-faire leadership

Hands-off approach, provides minimal direction and allows individual decision making

Social identity leadership

Leaser builds and represents shared ‘us’ as a group, uses group identity to motivate and unite followers

Define resilience

The capacity to adapt successfully to disturbances that threaten the function or development of a person.

Define systems

Different levels of factors or environments that influence a person’s ability to cope with adversity

What are some systems that could affect an individual’s resilience?

• Genetic

• Psychological

• Social

• Socioeconomic

• Cultural

What levels make up Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory?

• Microsystem

• Mesosystem

• Exosystem

• Macrosystem

• Chronosystem

What is the microsystem?

Innermost level, people and places that have a direct influence on the individual

What is the mesosystem?

Interaction between microsystems

What is the exosystem?

Things you aren’t directly involved in, but that can still affect you

What is the macrosystem?

Wider society and culture

What is the chronosystem?

Life events and historical changeds

What are 3 factors that influence resilience?

• Risk factors

• Protective factors

• Promotive factors

Define risk factor

Increase likelihood of child experiencing mental health issues

Define protective factor

Moderate relationship between risk factors and mental health issues

Define promotive factor

Enhance positive development and better adjustment regardless of risk - assets and resources that help children thrive

What is cumulative risk theory?

Negative developmental outcomes become more likely as the number of risk factors increases.

Describe Rutter’s (1979) research

• Used epidemiological research to examine why some children developed psychiatric difficulties while others didn’t

• Identified 6 environmental risk factors: Marital discord, low socioeconomic status, household overcrowding, paternal criminality, maternal psychiatric disorder, placement of child into care

• Created a cumulative risk index, but found no single risk factor best predicted poorer outcomes, however culmination of risk factors did.

What is the threshold effect?

Once adversity accumulates beyond a certain point, the likelihood of negative outcomes may increase more sharply. The threshold is not the same for every child.

What are cascading effects?

When positive or negative changes in one developmental domain trigger further changes within the same or different systems.

What types of interventions are in place for children within school settings?

• Universal - for all pupils

• Selective/targeted - for at risk pupils

• Indicated - for pupils demonstrating symptoms of mental health disorders

What is PATHS?

A social-emotional learning curriculum used in schools to help children manage behaviours and emotions. Based on the affective-behavioural-cognitive-developmental model of development.

What is Recover With Music?

• A psychosocial intervention based on Hobfall et al.’s framework for recovery after traumatic events.

• A one-day workshop of collaborative songwriting and breathing exercises to promote the resilience of girls who survived the 2018 earthquake and tsunami in Indonesia.

What were the effects of Recover With Music?

• Reduced PTSD symptoms

• Reduces anxiety

• Reduced fatalism

• Increased sense of peer support