(L7) observations

Six main types of observational methods

1. Naturalistic observation
2. Controlled observation
3. Covert observation
4. Overt observation
5. Participant observation
6. Non-participant observation

Naturalistic observation

An observational method where behaviour is studied in an everyday, real-world setting without any intervention from the researcher.

Controlled observation

An observational method where behaviour is monitored in an environment where variables and conditions are regulated by the researcher.

Covert observation

An observational method where behaviour is recorded without the knowledge or consent of the participants.

Overt observation

An observational method where participants are fully aware that they are being watched and recorded.

Participant observation

An observational method where the researcher joins the target group and records behaviour from within.

Non-participant observation

An observational method where the researcher remains external to the target group and does not attempt to become part of it.

Differences between structured and unstructured observations

• Structured: Involves pre-determined behavioural categories and tallies to produce quantitative data.
• Unstructured: Involves recording everything seen in narrative form to produce rich qualitative data.

Time sampling

An observational sampling technique where an observer records target behaviour at prescribed, regular time intervals (e.g., every 10 seconds).

Strengths and weaknesses of time sampling

• Strengths:
  • Allows for efficient use of time due to fewer total recordings.
  • Reduces observer overload, making it ideal for busy environments.
• Weaknesses:
  • Relevant behaviours occurring between the designated intervals are missed.

Event sampling

An observational sampling technique where an observer tallies every instance a target behaviour occurs throughout the entire duration of the session.

Strengths and weaknesses of event sampling

• Strengths:
  • Captures every occurrence of the target behaviour from the start to the finish of the observation.
• Weaknesses:
  • Important behaviours can be missed if too many events happen at the same time.

Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation

• Strengths: Behaviour is genuine and ecologically valid because participants are in their everyday setting.
• Weaknesses: Difficult to replicate due to lack of control over extraneous variables.

Overt observation

An observational method where participants are fully aware that they are being watched and recorded.

Participant observation

An observational method where the researcher joins the target group and records behaviour from within.

Non-participant observation

An observational method where the researcher remains external to the target group and does not attempt to become part of it.

Differences between structured and unstructured observations

• Structured: Involves pre-determined behavioural categories and tallies to produce quantitative data.
• Unstructured: Involves recording everything seen in narrative form to produce rich qualitative data.

Time sampling

An observational sampling technique where an observer records target behaviour at prescribed, regular time intervals (e.g., every 10 seconds).

Strengths and weaknesses of time sampling

• Strengths:
  • Allows for efficient use of time due to fewer total recordings.
  • Reduces observer overload, making it ideal for busy environments.
• Weaknesses:
  • Relevant behaviours occurring between the designated intervals are missed.

Event sampling

An observational sampling technique where an observer tallies every instance a target behaviour occurs throughout the entire duration of the session.

Strengths and weaknesses of event sampling

• Strengths:
  • Captures every occurrence of the target behaviour from the start to the finish of the observation.
• Weaknesses:
  • Important behaviours can be missed if too many events happen at the same time.

Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation

• Strengths: Behaviour is genuine and ecologically valid because participants are in their everyday setting.
• Weaknesses: Difficult to replicate due to lack of control over extraneous variables.

Strengths and weaknesses of controlled observation

• Strengths: Enables control over extraneous variables and is easily replicable.
• Weaknesses: Behaviour may not be genuine or representative of real-world settings.

Strengths and weaknesses of covert observation

• Strengths: Captures natural behaviour free of demand characteristics, as participants do not know they are being observed.
• Weaknesses: Ethically problematic due to lack of informed consent and invasion of privacy.

Strengths and weaknesses of overt observation

• Strengths: Ethically sound because participants give informed consent.
• Weaknesses: Prone to demand characteristics since participants know they are being monitored.

Strengths and weaknesses of participant observation

• Strengths: Provides rich, in-depth insider insight into the group.
• Weaknesses: Increased risk of observer bias as the researcher may lose objectivity by becoming involved.

Strengths and weaknesses of non-participant observation

• Strengths: The researcher maintains objectivity and avoids bias from an external perspective.
• Weaknesses: Subtle, important behaviours and deeper context may be overlooked from a distance.