Psychology 1 - Midterm 2 Study Guide (UC Berkeley)

Herman Ebbinghaus

- wanted to prove scientifically how we can examine memory

- to control stimulus or bias he used weird syllables and created lists to see what he could memorize (free recall test)

- learned that 7 +- 2 is usually what we remember

- taught us about the learning and forgetting curve

- varied in different times, systems for testing

- was not able to prove how our memory can recollect information to present it to answer a question or prompt asked

- if our memory could change if it was something important to us

- how do we alter our memory

free recall test

- no hints, pure memory after being represented the information

cued recall test

receiving hints while testing to hopefully remember more easily

recognition test

being represented with multiple answers, and being able to choose the right ones using recognition

Savings test

how good are we at relearning material we've learned before?

a lot better than learning it the first time

implicit memory test

implicit is when we are able to do something unconsciously (classical conditioning: doing something and expecting a positive reward)

the test examines our ability to do better

an example of this: those with amnesia who were asked to do the same activity on different days; and even tho had no recollection their body was able to improve

encoding

making information we take in memorable for retrieval

storage

remembering information in our brains so we can use it in the future

retrieval

our ability to get information stored in our brains and apply it

George Sperling

sensory memory experiment

he flashed a bunch of words with a tone pointing out which row they have to speak on

our ability to remember things based on timeline of continuous events

sensory memory

is the memory consisted of all our five senses, and lasts for a brief moment so we can process what is around us

short term memory (STM)

current relevant information we are able to retrieve within a few mins to only a few days. the learning and forgetting curve is still 7 +- 2

- will either be forgotten or converted into long term memory

long term memory (LTM)

short term memory that was able to convert into long term memory

this memory may be altered thru periods of time

nondeclarative procedural memory

using your implicit memory to perform procedures or facts

you dont need to say it, you can show thru your actions you know it

declarative memory

must actively retrieve the memory in our brain, can't show it but can state it

examples: episodic (experiences) and semantic (facts about the world)

serial order (position) effect

our increased or decreased ability to remember something based on its order in a list, or how the information is given to us

primacy effect

ability to remember things in the beginning rather than at any other time

recency effect

ability to remember things at the end more easily than at any other time

interference

when similar information causes you to forget or alter your new or old information.

proactive interference

lose your new information because of your old information

retroactive interference

losing our old information because we are getting new information

reconstruction effect

we are filling in the gaps of stuff we don't remember to make sense and retrieve our information from memory easier, but it can alter our information inaccurately

hindsight bias

i knew it all along, making us more overconfident to predict future events

we become convinced we predicted it

levels of processing

we process information in multiple levels

shallow = just seeing it, not making the effort to reconnect it with our experience, easier to forget

deep = goes into our brain, because we have actively recalled it, we can explain it in detail

encoding specificity

we are able to recall

stuff easier when the information is connected like a theme

- situation dependecy: based on our setting, conditions we are in

- state dependency: based on what we are feeling while collecting the information

Elizabeth Loftus

gaslit kids into thinking their parents lost them in the mall, but they never did and they believed it

mnemonic device

techniques on how to store and encode information so that we can retrieve it easier

examples are acronyms, symbols, using physical environments/experiences (method of loci)

intelligence

ability to critically think, adapt/learn to different environments, solve problems

examples: intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical, memory capacity, ideas, creativity

Spearman's psycho geometric approach

wanted to find a g factor: which is the general measurement of intelligence and it may be influenced by different parts of our life

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence

triarch = three

componential: analytical

experimental: how creative are we

contexual: ability to apply what we learn or adapt in different environments

Howard Gardner

harvard psychologist

9 intelligences

- visual, verbal, music, linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, physical, plants

fluid intelligence

being able to be smart in all areas of life (social, analytical, historical, intrapersonal)

crystallized intelligence

being smart because of ones experiences and knowledge gained throughout time

Alfred Binet

wanted to help kids who were not getting the most out of their education

stanford-binet test is the standardized version which measured a wider range of ages, how one was able to learn straight from the wound

calculated IQ based on MA/CA X100

Theodore Simon

student of Alfred Binet who helped him formulate a test

Binet-Simon test

- making exams like sentence generation, body parts, memory capacity, on theodore simon

- called the binet simon test: compared ones mental and chronological age

mental age

their answers on the test and where it aligns with what we expect the age of the responder to say

chronological age

the actual age of a child

Stanford-Binet IQ test

standardized test to measure more complex topics, wider range of people, and someones ability to learn out of the womb

Lewis Terman

psychologist who designed the Stanford-Binet test

intelligence quotient (IQ)

MA/CA X 100

David Wechsler

he split the iQ test into 2: children WISC and adults WAIS

average: 100

- broke it down into verbal, nonverbal, general/catergorical intelligence

- different cultures and languages may have different answers for these questions

heritability

nuture: environment, context around us

nature: genetics

how these two may influence our intelligence

nature

the amount of a characteristic that can be attributed to our biology (high heritability)

nurture

heritable because of our environment and context (low heritability)

the Flynn effect

how humans have been getting smarter each year

probably through easier access to information, education, rights

developmental psychology

humans generally have the same pattern to life, but we experience it differently

its predictable

apgar scale

measurement for babies identifying their physical and mental state

puberty

adolescent age where you are becoming an adult which results in several physical and mental changes

increase in hormones from pituitary gland

women: 9-13 estrogen, men are 11-15 tetosterone

precocious puberty

puberty that occurs at an earlier age, hormonal imbalance may lead to worsen life decisions, and is usually started because of weight, diet and stress

Thomas Bouchard

followed a pair of twins from minessota who grew up separately

- showed they had similar thought processes in a few answers/100..

us humans have a lot in common if we try hard enough.

Gerald McClearn

research on aging in twins at Penn State

chromosomes

46 separate protein strands, its function being genetic code

23 pairs of chromosomes

human genome

the complete set of genes contained within each of us

genes

determines who, what, and how; we will develop into

genes tell us how our cells will multiply and divide

Jean Piaget

he developed the different stages one will go through during their life development into an adult

- sensorimotor: (0-2)

- preoperational: (2-7)

- concrete operational (7-11)

- formal operational

(11-15)

criticisms: cultural, exposure differences

we will adapt to the demands surrounding us at the time

schema

skeleton on how to organize, process, and store information about our world (facts)

equilibrium

when our "Fact" is proven to be right with different circumstances

disequilibrium

when our fact is being contradicted through different circumstances

- assimilate, the fact stays the same, its just ur adding new information under that bracket (fitting it into ideas we already know)

- accommodate, modify their fact to specifically state this is what it is (reshape)

assimilation

the fact stays the same, its just ur adding new information under that bracket (fitting it into ideas we already know)

accommodation

modify their fact to specifically state this is what it is (reshape)

equilibration

when they solidly their schema after multiple exposures (contradiction, or experiences)

sensorimotor stage

exploring the world physically through ones senses to increase a desirable outcome, struggle to understand if something exists when you can't see or hear it

preoperational stage

more self centered, trying to figure out representations of the world surrounding us with physical actions

why?

concrete operational stage

ability to perceive things as they are, less self centered, understand perspective a bit more

formal operational stage

- finally able to not be so egocentric

- understand abstract, logical concepts

- identity searching

abstract reasoning

the ability to focus on the ideal and hypothetical; easy recognition of logic problems, move toward hypothetical-deductive reasoning

adolescent egocentrism

a heightened sense of self-consciousness that includes personal fables (perception of being unique and invincible) and an imaginary audience (perception of being the constant center of attention)

Lev Vygotsky

agrees w/ Piaget, says the stages can be accelerated with proper guidance

ZPD: zone of proximal development - where we are stuck with this one bubble, but with guidance our knowledge is able to expand and solve more issues

scaffolding: challenging the learner will help the learner better understand different topics

zone of proximal development

when someone can learn/solve issues more with guidance

scaffolding

teaching/challenging the person in order to help them learn the concept better

social psychology

social situations and its impact on our behaviors, emotions, and cognitive ability

self-fulfilling prophecies

someones expectation influences their behavior and increases its chance of the expectation occurring

Snyder, Tanke, and Berscheid

psychologists who conducted the phone conversation study

- where they gave two groups a pic of an attractive or unattractive lady and later asked if they found them attractive from the phone call

stereotype

a generalized belief or expectation about a group of people that we form

prejudice

attitude we form about someone based on what we know/experienced about the people/things surrounding them

discrimination

unfair treatment of a member of a group, solely because he/she is a member of a group; can be learned in a very short period of time and based on accurate and inaccurate stereotypes

Jane Elliot

eye of the storm; 3rd grade teacher who experimented with racism to teach her students about it

blue/brown eyes experiment: saying one group was better than another and described how they felt during it

attributions

this is a cause of something...

internal attributions

explaining the behaviors based on the internal characteristics of the person

external attributions

explaining behaviors based on the surrounding environment

fundamental attribution error

explaining why a behavior happens through internal attribution (more) than external

ignore external factors when judging others

actor-observer effect

we do the fundamental attribution to others but always blame one external attribution when it comes to us

Walter Cronkite

media member in the 70s used as an example in studies of the fundamental attribution error and the actor-observer effect

self-serving attribution bias

failing to acknowledge our personal internal failures while acknowledging when we do something right its all us and its not cuz of the context

conformity

changing a behavior to be similar to someones standard, social influence or the "normal"

might be thru not knowing how to act, so looking at the higher ups

if the right answer is there and the public goes another way, we may feel that others are probably correct

an ally that also is like us will help us reduce chances of conformity from 35 to 10%

norms

social standards of behavior and thought that are set by a group

public compliance

conforming to the publics behavior even tho you dont know or believe whats occurring

normative social influence

the impact that other people can have on us because of our desire to be liked and accepted by them

private acceptance

conforming to other people's behaviors cuz u think majority is prob right

Kitty Genovese

person who was stabbed and murdered in NY, dying as a result of the bystander effect

the bystander effect

our decrease in likelihood of helping when others also ignore

pluralistic ignorance

when you think everyone is thinking differently from you and going along with the "norm" even tho the norm is what you secretly agree with

smoke of the room: if people do something, you usually follow it even tho ITS A PROBLEM

diffusion of responsibility

we tend to feel less of a responsibility to act when others are nearby something is certainly wrong; demonstrated by the "seizure over a phone call" experiment

heuristics

mental shortcuts in order to decide, something based on previous experiment using generalization, schemas

representative heuristic

assumption that an item that resembles members of some category is probably also in that category; causes the base-rate fallacy (ignoring facts)

availability heuristic

the assumption is that if we can easily think of examples of a category, then that category must be common; "guess my rule" example

maximizing

look thru all alternatives to find which is the best one

confirmation bias

say something is right and fully find stuff that fits that agenda

satisficing

doesnt care about alternatives, settles