social exam 2

what is self concept influenced by

interactions with others

what animals have a rudimentary sense of self

• chimps

• orangutangs

• humans

when does self recognition develop for humans

18-24 months

define self concept

the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

• child - concrete, clear cut, observable characterisitcs

• adult - less emphasis on physical traits and more on psychological states and characteristics of how others judge us

what is central to self concept

morality

• more than cognitive processes or desires

what is the independent view of the self

a way of defining ones self in terms in their own thoughts, feelings, and actions

• NOT in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

• mainly seen in western cultures

what is the interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of ones relationship to other people

• recognizing that ones behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

• mainly seen in asian and other non western cultures

give an example of an independent self construal

naming your baby a unique name

define self knowledge

the way we understand who we are and formulate and organize this info

• we acquire it, not born with it

define impression management

the way we present ourselves to other people and get them to see us the way we want to be seen

define self esteem

the way in which we try to maintain positive views of ourselves

define introspection

the process where people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

• part of self knowledge

what are the consequences or limits to introspection

• self awareness theory

• self focus can cause negative self thoughts

what is self awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

• we become self conscious and become judgmental, objective observers of ourselves

how can self focus be good

• highlights our positive accomplishments

• remind you of a sense of right and wrong

• makes you aware of morals and ideals

define causal theories

theories about the causes of ones own feelings and behaviors

• often learn such theories from our culture

define self perception theory

theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation it occurs

• if your aren’r sure of how you reel, you observe your behavior (we observe our behavior and explain it to ourselves (we make an attribution)

  • infer attitudes, preferences, and emotions

what did stanley schachter do

proposed two factor theory of emotion

what is the two factor theory of emotion

idea that emotional experience is the result of a two step self perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

• only difference in these inferences are the type of behavior we observe

• ex: vitamin/epinephrine injection with questionnaire (schachter and singer study)

what conditions are necessary to experience and emotion according to schatcher

• arousal

• sought a reasonable explanation

• found a reasonable explanation

what are some things to note about the two factor theory of emotion

• the most plausible explanation isnt always the right one!

• everyday situation have more one plausible cause for our arousal

define misattribution of arousal

the process where people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

• ex: bridge questionnaire vs road questionnaire by Duton and Aron

what is intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

define extrinsic motivations

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures not because we find the task interesting or enjoy it

• over justification effect

what is the over justification effect

tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent it was caused by intrinsic reasons

• can be avoided in some conditions

• rewards undermine interest only if interest was intentionally high

what are task contingent rewards

rewards given for performing a ask, regardless of how well the task is done

• ex: pizza party for reading x amount of books

what are preformance contingent rewards

rewards based on how well we preform a task

• ex: cash prize for doing well on placement exams

• less likely to decrease interest in task

• may increase interest

• can put pressure on people by making them feel evaluated

define fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cant change

define growth mindset

the idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

what is crucial to success

mindset, its important to how we view any ability

• fixed is more likely to give up after a few setbacks

• growth will use setbacks as opportunities to improve through hard work and challenging themselves

how do we measure our own abilities and attitudes

seeing how we compare to others

define social comparison theory

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

• ex: donations from paycheck to coworker

• we are always engaging in social comparison

what two questions does social comparison theory revolve around

• when do we engage in social comparison

• who do we choose to compare ourselves with

what is upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

• can be dispiriting or make us feel inferior

what is downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

what does the nature of our goals depend on

who we compare ourselves to

define self control

the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long term goals

• they way we make plans and execute decisions

• important to the function of the self

why is self control important to the function of the self

be the chief executive who sets goals and makes choices about what to do in the present and the future

what doesnt improve self control

• avoiding temptations by trying not to think about them

• focus on longterm goal and its importance to us

what does improve self control

• forming specific implementation intentions

  • peoples specific plans about where, which, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptations

• arrange our environments so we avoid temptations

• be well rested when trying to exert self control

define impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

• ingratiation

• self handicapping

define ingratiation

the process where people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status

• through complements, agreeing with others ideas, commiserating and offering sympathy

define self handicapping

strategy where people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

• behavioral - people act in ways that reduce the likelihood that they will succeed on a task so if they fail they blame it on the obstacles they created

• reported - people devise ready made excuses in case they fail

are men or women less likely to self handicap by putting obstacles in their way

women

• they place more value on trying hard to achieve something than men do

what does self control predict

• good health

• higher income

• better grades

• can be strengthened with practice

  • ex: marshmallow study

who are the people that have higher than average self esteem

• gang leaders

• terrorists

• men in prison for violent crimes

• teen males who engage in sexual activity at a young age

• people who treat others poorly

what is the spotlight effect

we think everyone is focused on us all the time

• people are less focused on our imperfections than we are - its more about external body behaviors

• makes us more anxious than we need to be

• we see the world through our own flaws

• ex: barry manalow t shirt study

what is the illusion of transparency

we believe that our thoughts and feelings are more apparent to others than is actually the case

• implications for public speaking

• people dont have access to your internal thoughts even though we act like they do

• have a broader sense of self

define cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when two cognitions (beliefs and attitudes) conflict or when they behave in ways that threaten their self esteem

• dissonance is most painful and we are most motivated to reduce it when one of them challenges our self esteem

what are 3 ways to reduce dissonance

• changing our behavior to bring it in line with the dissonant cognition

• attempting to justify our behavior through changing one of the dissonant cognitions

• attempting to justify our behavior by adding new cognitions

  • makes people feel better about themselves

what happens when we make decisions

we experience dissonance

what is post decision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives

• ex: women ranking appliances study

how do decisions vary in how permanent they are

the more permanent the stronger the need to reduce dissonance

• ex: racehorse betting study

what is justification effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain, especially if they have freely chosen to exert that effort

• ex: building vs buying pre built furniture, Hindu festival of Thaipusdm

• aka ikea effect

when does an object become more attractive

when a person chooses to go through a demanding or unpleasant experience to attain a goal or object and the effort is viewed as necessary to attain the goal

what is counter attitudinal behavior

acting in a way that runs counter to ones private beliefs

how can you avoid counter attitudinal behavior

external justification

• explaining a counter attributional behavior as due to something about the situation or environment

what is internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (attitude or behavior)

• ex: college study and lying about how interesting the task was

what is the ben franklin effect

you will like someone more after having done a favor for them

• starts in early childhood

how do people treat their enimies

they dehumanize them

• we are more likely to victimize people who cant retaliate

can we have counter attitudinal behavior that goes against out moral beliefs

yes

• ex: cheating on a chem exam because you want to be a surgeon

why are harsh punishments not effective

they dont teach us to obey, they teach us to avoid getting caught

define insufficient punishment

the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object

• usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object

what happens when the punishment is less severe

there is less external justification needed which means you need more internal justification

• ex: Carlsmith study with the kids and the toys they were told they couldnt play with

what provides strong external justification for an action

sizable reward or severe punishment

what is the hypocrisy indicution

the arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior

• the purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior

• ex: researchers asking college students about condom use and having 2 groups reflect differently on their use and STI’s

explain the characteristics of dissonance among collectivist cultures

• more likely to have behaviors aimed at maintaining group harmony

• less likely for people to justify their own personal behavior

• more likely to experience dissonance when their behaviors shames or disappoints others

• ex: Japanese community will feel dissonance on part of someone they know and like

what are most causes of dissonance

• international

• generational

explain the findings of the study of vietnamese and cambodian adolescence and dissonance

adolescence in the US that were experiencing the most cognitive dissonance were most likely to get into trouble, do less well in school, and fight more with their parents

what is the self affirmation theory

the idea that people can reduce threats to their self esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat

what is self evaluation maintenance theory

the idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self esteem

• dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior so that we now outperform them, or deciding that the area is not that important to us after all

how do we reduce threats to our self esteem

by changing how relevant the task is to our self esteem

what do threats to our self concept have implications on

interpersonal relationships

how are dissonance reducing behaviors useful

helps us maintain our self esteem

why is overcoming dissonance difficult

• process of self justification is unconscious

• acknowledging our mistakes and taking responsibility for them is easier said than done

define narcissism

the combination of excessive self love and lack of empathy toward others

• have a hard time recognizing their own dissonance

• have a hard time admitting they were wrong

• self centered

• more concerned with themselves than others

how does high self esteem protect us

against thoughts about our own morality

what is terror management theory

theory that self esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own morality

• protect themselves from the anxiety caused by thoughts of their own morality

how do thoughts of morality differ between high and low self esteem

people with high self esteem are less troubled by these thoughts and those with low self esteem are more troubled by these thoughts

struggles narcissists face

• low academic performance

• less successful in business

• more violent

• disliked by others

what are attitudes

evaluations of people, objects, and ideas

• they determine what we do

where do attitudes come from

they are linked to our genes

• identical vs fraternal twin study

• does not mean specific genes determine our attitudes

what are attitudes related to

temperament and personality

what are the 3 components of attitude

• cognitive - thoughts, beliefs people form about the attitude object

• affective - emotional reaction to attitude object

• behavioral - how people will act to attitude object

what are cognitively based attitudes

attitudes based primarily on peoples beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

• allows us to classify pros and cons

• ex: what vacuum cleaner you like (based on objective merits)

what are affectively based attitudes

attitudes based more on peoples feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object

• stem from peoples values, sensory reaction, or conditioning

• do NOT come from examining facts

• function is to validate ones basic value system

define classical conditioning

phenomenon where a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neural stimulus that doesnt, until the neural stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

• ex: grandparents house and smell of laundry detergent and chicken soup

what is operant conditioning

phenomenon where behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment

• ex: adopting racist attitudes

what are behaviorally based attitudes

attitudes based on observations of how one behaves toward an object

• self perception theory

what are explicit attitudes

attitudes we consciously endure and can easily report

what are implicit attitudes

attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

what do we have attitudes about

everything

what were the findings of the study by Rudman, Phelan, and Heppen

• found implicit attitudes are rooted in childhood experiences

• explicit attitudes are rooted in recent experiences

• one study - they measures college students implicit and explicit attitudes toward overweight people

  • implicit was based on childhood weight

  • explicit was based on current weight

  • additional: people with overweight moms had positive implicit attitudes even if their explicit were negative

when do attitudes predict behavior

• only under specific conditions

• comes down to knowing if the behavior was planned or spontaneous

• ex: LaPiere study - traveled with chinese couple and needing a hotel room IRL vs in writing

how do attitudes predict spontaneous behavior

• only when they are highly accessible

• high accessibility means the attitude comes to mind when you see the object

• low accessibility means the attitude comes to mind more slowly

define attitude accessibility

the strength of the association between an attitude object and a persons evaluation of that object

• measured by the speed people can report how they feel about the object

what allows for accessibility

the degree people have experiencing attitude

how do we predict deliberate behaviors

• theory of planned behavior

• subjective norms and perceived behavioral control

• asking people about these determinants of their intentions increases the ability to anticipate how they will react

  • helps us determine deliberate acts

• when you have a strong intention

• more likely to have attitudes that match behaviors

define theory of planned behavior

idea that peoples intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

• holds idea that more specific the attitude toward the behavior the better the attitude can be used to predict the behavior

• davidson and sacard study

  • attitudes vs behaviors about birth control

what are subjective norms

peoples beliefs about how others they care about will view their behavior in question