Unit 0 APPSYC

case study

In-depth examination of an individual or small group over an extended period, often using a variety of data sources such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests.

confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, and remember only information that supports one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence.

confounding variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable, leading to inaccurate interpretations of the results.

control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used for comparison with the experimental group.

dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

experiment

A research method in which one or more variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable, while controlling for extraneous factors.

experimental group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or intervention being studied.

experimenter bias

The influence of the researcher's expectations or beliefs on the outcomes of an experiment, leading to unintentional bias in data collection or interpretation.

falsifiability

The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to conceive of evidence that would prove it false.

generalizability

The extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. It's often referred to as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon.

hypotheses

Testable predictions or educated guesses about the relationship between two or more variables, typically formulated as statements.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

naturalistic oberservation

Watching behavior in its natural context without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

operational definitions

Precise descriptions of how variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. They specify the procedures used to define and measure concepts.

overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's abilities, knowledge, or judgment, often leading to errors in decision-making or problem-solving.

peer reviews

The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity before publication or presentation.

placebo

An inactive substance or treatment that resembles the experimental treatment, used in research to control for the psychological effects of receiving treatment.

placebo effect

The phenomenon where individuals experience a change in their condition or behavior after receiving a placebo, due to their belief in the effectiveness of the treatment.

population

The entire group of individuals or cases that researchers are interested in studying and to which they intend to generalize their findings.

qualitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, such as observations, interviews, or textual analysis, to understand meanings, experiences, or perspectives.

quantitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to understand relationships, patterns, or trends.

random assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing the likelihood of bias.

random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study, increasing the generalizability of the findings.

replication

Repeating a research study or experiment to determine if the findings can be reliably reproduced.

representative sample

a group that closely matches the characteristics of its population as a whole; it is a fairly accurate reflection of the population

sample

a subset of a population that is selected to take part in a study with the aim of making inferences to the population

sampling bias

A bias in which a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, leading to inaccurate or ungeneralizable results.

single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which either the participants or the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group.

social desirability bias

The tendency for people to respond in a manner that they believe is socially acceptable, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

survey

A research method that involves collecting data from a population through the use of questionnaires or interviews to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics.

variable

Any factor or condition that can change or vary in a research study. Variables are typically categorized as independent or dependent.

wording effects

the phenomenon where slight changes in the phrasing of a question or statement can lead to variations in one's answer

confidentiality

identity and responses from participants in a research study should be hidden and protected

correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how they change together. Does not prove causation

correlation coefficient

A numerical value between -1 and +1 that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

debriefing

The process of providing participants with information about the purpose, procedures, and results of a research study after their participation, especially if deception was used.

descriptive statistics

Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe the characteristics or properties of a dataset, such as measures of central tendency and variability.

effect size

A measure of the strength or magnitude of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of a treatment effect, independent of sample size.

histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where the data is divided into intervals (bins) and the height of each bar represents the frequency or count of data points within each interval.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, or the perceived relationship is weaker than it appears.

inferential statistics

Statistical techniques used to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data, including hypothesis testing and estimation.

informed assent

a process through which minors (children under 18) agree to participate in research by getting approval from parents/guardians

informed consent

The ethical principle requiring that participants in a research study are fully informed about the nature, purpose, risks, and benefits of participation before agreeing to take part.

institutional review

a committee that evaluates research proposals for ethical acceptability and compliance with the organization’s codes of conduct

mean

The average of a set of values, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

median

The middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining the findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to determine overall trends or effects.

mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

negative correlation

a relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases

negative skew

When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the low end relative to the high end (e.g., when a test is easy and most test takers do well)

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population, with the mean, median, and mode all located at the center.

percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular score.

positive correlation

a relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together; also called a direct correlation

positive skew

When a distribution has a few extreme scores toward the high end relative to the low end (e.g., when a test is difficult and few test takers do well)

protection from harm

participants in a research study should not experience undue physical, emotional, and/or psychological stress

range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset, representing the spread or dispersion of the data.

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a variable to move closer to the average or mean when measured again.

scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, where each data point represents an individual's score on both variables.

skewed distribution

A distribution of data in which the scores cluster more towards one end (positive skew) or the other end (negative skew) of the range, rather than being evenly distributed.

standard deviation

A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean of the dataset, indicating the degree of variability or dispersion in the data.

statistical significance

The likelihood that the results of a study are not due to chance, typically determined by comparing observed data with expected outcomes under the null hypothesis.

third variable problem

the fact that an observed correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and an additional variable. For example it appears Variable X is related to Variable Y, however there is Variable Z that influences both X and Y.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning & the environment in explaining observable actions.

Biological Perspective

Branch of psychology concerned with the links between internal features (brain, genetics, etc) and behavior.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach in psychology focused on the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, problem-solving and how they influence behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

Approach that emphasizes the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Approach of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior.

Psychology

Scientific study of human behavior and mental processes

Evolutionary Perspective

psychological approach that views human behaviors are products of natural selection and adaptation for survival

Sociocultural Perspective

Approach of psychology focused on how situations and cultures affect behavior and thinking.