ap psych unit 1 vocab terms

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach that explains behavior by examining how inherited traits may have helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Eugenics

The discredited practice of trying to improve human populations by controlling reproduction based on supposedly desirable inherited traits.

Nervous System

The body's communication network that receives information, processes it, and coordinates responses.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and control bodily activities.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat and digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and prepares it for action during stress.

Peripheral Nervous System

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that carries sensory information and controls skeletal muscle movements.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and supports rest and digestion.

Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that receive and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Glial Cells

Cells that support, protect, nourish, and insulate neurons.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway responsible for a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry commands from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the central nervous system that connect and process information between other neurons.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The rule that a neuron fires a full action potential once its threshold is reached or does not fire at all.

Depolarization

A change in a neuron's electrical charge that makes the inside less negative and can trigger an action potential.

Reuptake

The process in which a sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease in which damage to myelin in the central nervous system disrupts nerve signaling.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that increase the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, learning, and movement.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness, attention, and arousal.

GABA

The brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter, which reduces neural activity.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain-related signals.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream that influence body functions and behavior.

Leptin

A hormone released mainly by fat cells that helps signal energy stores and regulate hunger.

Refractory Period

The brief period after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again or requires stronger stimulation.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane when it is not firing, usually around negative 70 millivolts.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that interferes with communication between nerves and muscles, causing muscle weakness.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, appetite, and other functions.

Glutamate

The brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, important for learning and memory.

Endorphins

Natural chemical messengers that reduce pain and can produce pleasurable feelings.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, attention, learning, and memory.

Adrenaline

A hormone also called epinephrine that increases heart rate and prepares the body to respond to stress.

Ghrelin

A hormone released mainly by the stomach that stimulates hunger.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in childbirth, milk release, and aspects of social bonding.

Melatonin

A hormone produced mainly by the pineal gland that helps regulate sleep timing.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter mood, perception, thinking, or behavior.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or reduces the action of a neurotransmitter at a receptor.

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

Caffeine

A stimulant that increases alertness primarily by blocking adenosine receptors.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that blocks the reuptake of dopamine and other neurotransmitters.

Opioids

Drugs that act on opioid receptors to relieve pain and may produce euphoria and dependence.

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid that can produce euphoria, pain relief, and dangerous respiratory depression.

Addiction

Compulsive substance use or behavior despite harmful consequences and difficulty stopping.

Agonist

A substance that activates a receptor and mimics or increases the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A substance that blocks the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter, increasing its availability in the synapse.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that decrease central nervous system activity.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows central nervous system activity and impairs judgment, coordination, and memory.

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs that significantly alter perception, thoughts, and sensory experiences.

Marijuana

Cannabis, a psychoactive drug containing THC that can alter perception, mood, memory, and coordination.

Tolerance

A reduced response to a substance after repeated use, often requiring a larger dose for the same effect.

Withdrawal

Physical or psychological symptoms that can occur when a dependent person reduces or stops using a substance.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change its structure and functioning in response to experience, learning, or injury.

EEG

Electroencephalography, a technique that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp.

fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging, which estimates brain activity by measuring changes in blood oxygenation.

Lesions

Areas of damaged or destroyed tissue that researchers may study to understand brain function.

Brain Stem

The structure connecting the brain and spinal cord that regulates essential functions such as breathing and arousal.

Medulla

A brainstem structure that helps regulate breathing, heart rate, and other automatic survival functions.

Reticular Activating System

A network in the brainstem involved in wakefulness, alertness, and attention.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that coordinates balance, movement, and motor learning.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the cerebrum involved in perception, voluntary movement, language, and complex thinking.

Limbic System

A group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Thalamus

A brain structure that relays most sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure that regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and endocrine activity.

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland controlled by the hypothalamus that releases hormones affecting growth and other glands.

Hippocampus

A brain structure essential for forming many new explicit memories.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threats.

Corpus Callosum

A large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Broca's Area

A region usually in the left frontal lobe important for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A region usually in the left temporal lobe important for language comprehension.

Cortex Specialization

The tendency of different regions of the cerebral cortex to perform particular functions.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

The organization in which each brain hemisphere primarily controls or processes information from the opposite side of the body.

Aphasia

An impairment in language production or comprehension caused by brain damage.

Occipital Lobe

The region at the back of the brain primarily responsible for visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

A brain region involved in hearing, language comprehension, and memory.

Parietal Lobe

A brain region involved in processing touch and spatial information.

Somatosensory Cortex

A region of the parietal lobe that processes bodily sensations such as touch and pressure.

Frontal Lobe

A brain region involved in planning, decision-making, personality, and voluntary movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

The front part of the frontal lobe involved in judgment, planning, working memory, and impulse control.

Motor Cortex

A region of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary skeletal muscle movements.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and one's environment.

Blindsight

The ability of some people with damage to the visual cortex to respond to visual information without consciously seeing it.

Circadian Rhythm

The body's approximately 24-hour biological cycle regulating sleep, wakefulness, and other functions.

Restoration Theory

The theory that sleep helps restore and repair the body and brain.

Jet Lag

A disruption of the circadian rhythm caused by rapidly traveling across time zones.

EEG Patterns

Patterns of electrical brain activity measured by EEG that vary with wakefulness and sleep stages.

NREM

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, consisting of stages N1, N2, and N3.

REM

Rapid eye movement sleep, a stage associated with vivid dreaming, active brain activity, and reduced skeletal muscle tone.

REM Rebound

An increase in REM sleep after a period of REM sleep deprivation.

Activation Synthesis Theory

The theory that dreams arise as the brain attempts to interpret internally generated neural activity during sleep.

Consolidation Theory

The theory that sleep helps stabilize and strengthen newly formed memories.

Insomnia

Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep despite adequate opportunity.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder involving excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden episodes of sleep.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A disorder in which normal REM muscle paralysis is reduced, allowing a person to physically act out dreams.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder involving repeated pauses or reductions in breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking, usually occurring during deep NREM sleep.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid sensory experiences or hallucinations that occur while falling asleep.