Jerusalem Test 1 - ID Terms

Fertile Crescent

Arc of farmland running from Egypt's Nile through Canaan and Syria to Mesopotamia, where agriculture, cities, and empires first arose. Jerusalem sits in the hill country on its western arm, between Egypt and the northern powers (Hittites, Assyria, Babylon). That position made it a border town repeatedly caught between great powers from the Bronze Age onward.

Kidron Valley

Deep valley on the east side of Jerusalem separating the Eastern Ridge from the Mount of Olives; the Gihon Spring sits on its slope. It formed the city's eastern boundary in every period, and the earliest settlement sat just above it. Tombs (e.g., Absalom, Benei Hezir, Zechariah) line its slopes in the Hellenistic and Herodian eras.

Gihon Spring

Jerusalem's main natural water source, in the Kidron Valley at the foot of the Eastern Ridge. It was probably the reason for settlement as early as the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000 BCE); Canaanites built massive fortified towers around it and a tunnel system to it from the 18th century BCE onward. Hezekiah's Tunnel (ca. 701 BCE) later rerouted its water, and the city always starts from and retracts to this spot.

Hinnom Valley

Valley bounding Jerusalem on the south and west, separating the city's hills from the land beyond. It served as a natural defensive boundary for the walls of the First Temple period and later. The 7th-century BCE Ketef Hinnom burials overlook it.

Western Hill

Higher hill west of the Central (Tyropoeon) Valley, outside the earliest city. Jerusalem's expansion is always westward onto it: Hezekiah's Mishneh/Broad Wall (late 8th c. BCE), Jason's gymnasium (ca. 175 BCE), and Herod's palace and Upper City (1st c. BCE). Today it holds the Jewish and Armenian Quarters.

Eastern Hill

Narrow ridge (also called the Eastern Ridge) between the Kidron and Central valleys, running from the City of David in the south up to the Temple Mount in the north. It is where Jerusalem begins and where it shrinks back to in hard times. The sacred precinct sits on its peak in every period except the early Christian one.

Mt. Moriah

Northern peak of the Eastern Ridge, the site of the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. Tradition links it to Abraham's near-sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22) and to Solomon's Temple (ca. 960s BCE). It anchors Jerusalem's sacred geography for Jews and Muslims across three millennia.

Urusalim

Canaanite name for Jerusalem (also Urushalim) used in the Amarna letters and, in a variant form (Rushalimum), in the Execration Texts; it was a Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550-1200 BCE) fortified town ruled by Semitic-named rulers, caught between Egyptian and Hittite spheres. Cline notes the name is attested in the 19th-18th c. and 14th c. BCE, then again from David's time. It proves Jerusalem was a city long before the Israelites.

Egyptian Execration Texts

Egyptian ritual texts from the 19th-18th c. BCE (Middle Bronze Age) that list enemy towns and rulers to be cursed: first set on bowls, later set on figurines of prisoners, which were ritually smashed and buried. They give the earliest mention of Jerusalem (rwsh3mm, 'Rushalimum') and name two rulers with West Semitic/Amorite names. They show Jerusalem was already a significant Canaanite city that Egypt viewed as a threat.

Yaqir-Ammu

Ruler of Jerusalem named in the earlier Egyptian Execration Texts (19th-18th c. BCE) alongside Saz-Anu, each with his 'retainers.' Both names are West Semitic, probably Amorite, so Jerusalem was under Canaanite/Amorite control at this time. He is evidence that Egypt and Jerusalem's rulers were already in contact, and in conflict, centuries before David.

El-Amarna Tablets

Cuneiform diplomatic letters (mid-14th c. BCE, reigns of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten) found in 1887 at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, including letters from Canaanite petty rulers to the pharaoh. Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem sent at least six, showing Urushalim as an Egyptian vassal under attack from neighbors and the Hapiru. They are the earliest written records of conflict for Jerusalem.

Abdu-Heba

Ruler of Urushalim ca. 1350 BCE (spelled Abdi-Heba by Cline), a 'mayor' (hazannu) on paper but a minor king in practice, and author of Amarna letters such as EA 286 and 288. He claims he rules by 'the strong arm' of the pharaoh and begs for help; Egypt sent about fifty archers. His letters show Jerusalem as an Egyptian client city-state in the Late Bronze Age.

Sea Peoples

Marauding seaborn raiders (origin uncertain; slides ask 'Minoan?') who ravaged the eastern Mediterranean and helped end the Late Bronze Age around 1200 BCE, destroying Ugarit (ca. 1186 BCE) and attacking Egypt. The Peleset among them became the Philistines (Gaza, Ashkelon, Gath); their name is the root of 'Palestine.' The power vacuum they left let Israelites, Philistines, and small city-states rise, setting the scene for David.

Jebus

Biblical name for Jerusalem while held by the Jebusites, a Canaanite-related people perhaps distantly linked to the Hittites, before David captured it ca. 1000 BCE. Cline notes the names Jebus and Jerusalem may have been used at the same time. Jebus stands for the pre-Israelite city that David turned into his capital.

Stepped Stone Structure

Massive terraced stone structure on the slope of the City of David (Area G), uncovered by Kathleen Kenyon, probably built in the 14th-13th c. BCE and reused later. Kenyon suggested it may have been the foundation of the Jebusite 'stronghold of Zion' that David took (2 Sam 5:7). It is the main physical evidence of Canaanite monumental building, though its date and purpose are debated.

Shalem

Name of a Canaanite god, often tied to dusk. It is part of both proposed etymologies of Jerusalem: Yeru (Sumerian "settlement") + Shalem = "city of the god Shalem," or Yarah ("lay a cornerstone") + Shalem = founding the god's temple. It points to pre-Israelite religious roots for the city's name.

Melchizedek

Priest-king of 'Salem' who blessed Abraham (Gen 14:18-20), placed by Cline perhaps in the 18th c. BCE. If Salem is Jerusalem, as most scholars accept, he is another early ruler of the city, with a good Canaanite (maybe Amorite) name. Later tradition makes him a model for Davidic priest-kingship (Ps 110) and ties Jerusalem to ancient sacred rule.

City of David

Name David gave to the captured Jebusite stronghold (2 Sam 5:7-9) in the late 11th/ca. 1000 BCE, on the southern Eastern Ridge above the Gihon Spring. It became capital of the united monarchy and holds Jerusalem's oldest remains. Israel's 1996 'Jerusalem 3000' celebration marked 3,000 years since this conquest.

Tsinor

Hebrew word in 2 Samuel 5:8 ('tsinnor') that David says his men should 'get up' to attack the Jebusites. It is translated as water shaft, ditches, gutter, trident, or, by McCarter, 'windpipe.' Reich and Shukron found a Canaanite tunnel system to the Gihon dating to the 18th c. BCE, supporting 'water shaft' with Joab entering via tunnels, though Warren's Shaft itself was probably not in use until ~200 years after David.

Original Temple Mount Theory

Minority view (Knauf; supported by Finkelstein, Koch, Lipschits, and Na'aman) that Jerusalem began on the Haram al-Sharif platform rather than the southeastern hill. In 2023 Na'aman argued that cuneiform tablets found on the Ophel washed downhill from a Canaanite administrative center under Mt. Moriah. It challenges the standard view that the City of David was the original city.

King Hiram of Tyre

Phoenician king who sent David cedar, carpenters, and masons (2 Sam 5:11) and supplied Solomon's Temple builders and timber (1 Kings 5), 10th c. BCE. Phoenician expertise shaped David's and Solomon's building projects in Jerusalem. It shows Jerusalem's new royal city depended on international ties.

Long-Axis Temple

Temple plan in which porch, main hall, and inner sanctum lie in one straight line. Solomon's Temple (ca. 960 BCE, per biblical chronology) matches this type, with parallels in Syro-Anatolian temples. It suggests the Jerusalem Temple was built using regional Phoenician and Syrian models, not an isolated invention.

Tel Tayinat

Iron Age site in southern Turkey (9th-8th c. BCE) with a well-preserved long-axis temple. It is one of the closest known parallels to the floor plan of Solomon's Temple. It supports the idea that the Temple followed a wider Syro-Anatolian architectural tradition.

Ain Dara

Iron Age temple in northern Syria (ca. 1000-740 BCE) with a long-axis plan and giant footprints carved into its threshold. It is another close parallel for the layout of Solomon's Temple. It is evidence that biblical descriptions of the Temple fit a known regional temple style.

Tel Motza

Site just west of Jerusalem with an Iron Age (10th-9th c. BCE) long-axis temple. It is a Judahite example of the same plan as Solomon's Temple, found near the capital. It shows the style was present locally in the era of the early monarchy.

Bet David

"House of David," the phrase on the Tel Dan Inscription (mid-9th c. BCE), an Aramaic victory stele. It is the earliest known non-biblical mention of David's dynasty ruling Judah. It supports the existence of a Davidic dynasty centered in Jerusalem.

Divided Monarchy

Split of the united kingdom after Solomon's death in 922 BCE into Israel in the north (Jeroboam I) and Judah in the south (Rehoboam). Causes included forced labor, taxes, restructured tribal life, regional rivalries, and Egyptian interference (Shishaq). Jerusalem became the capital of small, backwater Judah while the north dominated until ca. 720 BCE.

Hierophany

Mircea Eliade's term for a manifestation of the sacred breaking into ordinary space, such as Jacob's dream at Bethel (Gen 28). The place becomes qualitatively different from surrounding space. It is the framework for explaining why Mt. Moriah/Temple Mount is treated as sacred.

Axis Mundi

Eliade's "world axis," the point where heaven, earth, and underworld meet, often a sacred mountain or temple. Jerusalem's Temple and Zion are imagined as the center of the world, as seen on the Bunting Clover Leaf Map (1581), which centers Jerusalem. It explains Jerusalem's role as the world's spiritual center.

Sacred Space

Eliade's idea that space is not uniform: sacred space is set apart by a hierophany and gives a fixed point for orientation, versus profane space. In Jerusalem the Temple Mount is a constant sacred precinct on the Eastern Ridge across periods. It is a lens for reading biblical passages and maps of Jerusalem.

Hezekiah's Tunnel

About 533 m rock-cut tunnel bringing Gihon water to the Siloam Pool inside the walls, built ca. 701 BCE ahead of Sennacherib's attack (2 Kings 20:20) and falling only about 30 cm. It was part of Hezekiah's preparations along with the Broad Wall (over 20 ft thick; Isa 22:10) built to protect the vulnerable north side. It secured Jerusalem's water supply during siege.

Siloam Inscription

Hebrew inscription cut into the roof of Hezekiah's Tunnel (late 8th c. BCE; now in Istanbul) describing two crews digging toward each other and meeting 'axe against axe' with only three cubits left, after which water flowed to the pool. The slides give the length as 200 cubits; Cline's translation reads 1,200. It is a rare monumental Hebrew inscription from the First Temple period and confirms the tunnel's engineering.

Lachish

Judah's second most important city, southwest of Jerusalem, besieged and captured by Sennacherib in 701 BCE. Hezekiah sent tribute to him there (2 Kings 18:14), and the siege is shown on a 60-ft-long relief in Sennacherib's Nineveh palace (now mainly in the British Museum). Sennacherib commemorated Lachish but never claimed Jerusalem, which shows how Jerusalem survived while the rest of Judah was devastated.

Zion Theology

Belief that Jerusalem (Zion) is God's chosen dwelling and cannot be conquered (Ps 125; Isaiah 7-11, 10:32-33). It begins in Isaiah's time and grows after Jerusalem survives Sennacherib's siege in 701 BCE. It shaped Judahite religion and made the later fall in 586 BCE a theological crisis.

Sennacherib

Neo-Assyrian king who invaded Judah in 701 BCE, took 46 fortified towns and deported 200,150 people (by his own count), and shut Hezekiah up in Jerusalem 'like a bird in a cage' (Taylor Prism). He never claimed to have captured Jerusalem. Reasons he left include tribute (300 talents of silver in the Bible, 800 in his inscription), Egyptian pressure, or plague (2 Kings 19:35; Herodotus' field mice), and Jerusalem's survival fed Zion Theology.

Proto-Aeolic Capital

Ornate stone column capital with curling volutes, used in monumental royal buildings in Iron Age Israel and Judah (8th-7th c. BCE). Examples found in and around Jerusalem show elite building under Judah's later kings. It is evidence of Jerusalem's growth and wealth during the Hezekiah-Manasseh era.

Nebuchadnezzar

Neo-Babylonian king (r. 605-562 BCE) who, as crown prince, beat Egypt and Assyria at Carchemish (605 BCE). He attacked Jerusalem in 598 and 597 BCE (capturing it and deporting elites) and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 BCE (9 Av) after Judah's rebellions under Jehoiakim and Zedekiah. He ends the First Temple period and starts the Babylonian exile.

Manasseh

Hezekiah's son, king of Judah ca. 697/687-643 BCE, who reversed his father's religious reforms and restored cooperation with Assyria. Judah prospered from Assyria-Arabia caravan trade and Jerusalem grew again. He is the foil to Hezekiah and Josiah in the biblical story of reform and decline.

Josiah

King of Judah (639-609 BCE), Manasseh's grandson, who repaired the Temple, found a scroll of the law there, and purged shrines (2 Kings 22-23). His reforms made the Temple the central cultic site. Cline calls him the last independent Davidic king: he was killed at Megiddo by Necho II in 609 BCE, and his successors were puppets.

Pharaoh Necco II

Egyptian pharaoh (r. 610-595 BCE), son of Psammetichus I who founded the 26th Dynasty and threw off Assyria (ca. 656 BCE). He marched north to help the Assyrians, and Josiah met and was killed by him at Megiddo in 609 BCE (2 Kings 23:29). Afterward Judah was caught between Egypt and the rising Babylonians until 586 BCE.

Neo-Babylonian Empire

Babylon-based empire (ca. 626-539 BCE) that replaced Assyria as the regional power. It beat Egypt at Carchemish (605 BCE) and took Jerusalem in 597 and 586 BCE, deporting its people. It fell to Cyrus of Persia in 539 BCE.

Ketef Hinnom Amulets

Two tiny silver scrolls from burial caves above the Hinnom Valley (ca. 600 BCE), inscribed with a version of the Priestly Blessing (Num 6:24-26) naming YHWH. They are among the oldest known biblical texts. They show literacy and Yahwistic devotion in Jerusalem in Josiah's time, just before the Babylonian destruction.

House of Ahiel

Late Iron Age house in Area G of the City of David, destroyed in the Babylonian conquest of 586 BCE, named for a shard inscribed 'Ahiel.' A toilet seat found in situ in a small cubicle suggests a wealthy household. (Cline's endnote ties it to Avigad's Jewish Quarter dig, while the lecture places it in Area G of the City of David.) It is physical evidence of the 586 destruction.

Cyrus the Great

Founder of the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire who conquered Babylon in 539 BCE and in 538 BCE allowed exiled Jews to return, turning Judah into the province of Yehud. Isaiah 45 calls him God's anointed, and Ezra 1 records his decree to rebuild the Temple, whose completion came in 516 BCE under Zerubbabel. He begins the Second Temple period.

Cyrus Cylinder

Clay cylinder (ca. 539 BCE) in Babylonian cuneiform describing Cyrus's conquest of Babylon and his return of captured gods' images and peoples to their homes. It does not name the Jews, but it matches the policy described in Ezra's decree. It is outside evidence that Persia supported restoration of local temples.

Sheshbazzar

Davidic descendant (grandson of Jehoiachin) who led the first return from Babylon and governed Yehud under Cyrus (ca. 538 BCE), beginning Temple rebuilding. The Temple was finished in 516 BCE under Zerubbabel and the high priest Yeshua in Darius I's reign. He marks the start of the restoration.

Ezra

Priest and scribe who came to Yehud in 458 BCE under Artaxerxes I. He enforced the Mosaic Law and ended intermarriage. He reshaped Jerusalem's community around Torah in the Persian period.

Nehemiah

Jewish cupbearer to Artaxerxes I who became governor (peha) of Yehud in 445 BCE and, according to the Bible, led the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls in just 52 days. His work is the basis for the debate over the size of Persian-period Jerusalem (Neh 7:4: 'wide and large'). He restored the city's defenses after generations of ruin.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who defeated the Persians in battles between 334 and 323 BCE and took over Yehud; he died in Babylon in 323 BCE at age 33. Stories of his visit to Jerusalem are almost certainly apocryphal. He brought Hellenism to Judea, and his death started the Diodochi wars that left Jerusalem contested between Greek dynasties.

Diodochi

The Diodochoi (Diadochi), 'Successors' of Alexander, whose generals fought over his empire after 323 BCE. Two founded the dynasties that fought over Judea: the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria/Mesopotamia. Judea became a 'contested periphery' with more than twenty conflicts in Jerusalem in the Hellenistic age (323-30 BCE).

Seleucids

Greek dynasty based in Syria (Antioch) whose king Antiochus III attacked Jerusalem in 201 BCE, was expelled in 200, and recaptured it that year, then ruled Judea until the Maccabean revolt (about 35 years later). Early policy was liberal, allowing priestly self-rule, but conflict with Seleucid kings over the Temple (Heliodorus, ca. 180 BCE) and then Antiochus IV's repression led to revolt. They are the foil for the Hasmoneans.

Ptolomies

Greek dynasty (Ptolemies) based in Egypt that took Jerusalem in 312 BCE when Ptolemy I attacked on the Sabbath and ruled Judea for over a century until 198 BCE. Jerusalem was sacked early and taxes were farmed through Joseph the Tobiad. The Sabbath attack led the Maccabees later to allow defensive warfare on the Sabbath.

Antiochus IV

Seleucid king (175-164 BCE) called Epiphanes ('God manifest'), mocked as Epimanes ('madman'). He sold the high priesthood to Jason and then Menelaus, stormed Jerusalem in 169 BCE after Jason's revolt and looted the Temple, then in 167 BCE banned Jewish practice, rededicated the Temple to Zeus, and built the Akra. His policies triggered the Maccabean revolt.

Onias III

Jewish High Priest removed in 175 BCE when his brother Jason bribed Antiochus IV for the office; he was later murdered (2 Macc 4). His fall shows the high priesthood becoming a political prize bought from Seleucid kings. He is the last traditional high priest before Hellenizers took over.

Jason

Brother of Onias III who bribed Antiochus IV for the high priesthood (175 BCE) and Hellenized Jerusalem: renaming it Antioch-Hierosolyma, founding an ephebium, and building a gymnasium near the Temple on the Western Hill. Menelaus outbid him three years later; Jason led a failed attack on Jerusalem in 169 BCE and died in exile. He shows how Hellenization began from within the Jewish elite.

Acra

Seleucid fortress (Akra) built by Antiochus IV in 167 BCE to garrison troops over Jerusalem and the Temple; its location is still debated (near the Temple Mount or the Givati parking lot dig). It stood about two decades and stayed Greek even after Judah rededicated the Temple in 164 BCE. Simon took it in 142-141 BCE, and Josephus says it was demolished stone by stone.

Mattathias

Priest from Modein (about 17-19 miles northwest of Jerusalem) who killed a Seleucid officer ordering pagan sacrifice in 167 BCE and, with his five sons, launched the revolt. He died within a year, and his family, the Hasmoneans, led the fight. He is the founder of the Hasmonean line.

Judah haMaccabi

Judah 'the Hammer,' third of Mattathias' five sons, who led the revolt, entered Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple in 164 BCE (origin of Hanukkah) while the Akra still held out. He died in battle in 160/161 BCE after appealing to Rome. His brothers Jonathan and then Simon finished the job.

Simon the Great

Last of Mattathias' sons to lead the revolt; he took and cleansed the Akra in 142-141 BCE, rebuilt Jerusalem's defenses, and became Nasi and High Priest, founding an independent Hasmonean state. He was murdered by his son-in-law Ptolemy at a banquet in Jericho in 135/134 BCE. He is credited with ending Seleucid control of Jerusalem.

John Hyrcanus

Simon's third son who survived the 135/134 BCE coup and ruled until 104 BCE. He bought off Antiochus VII, who besieged Jerusalem in 135 BCE, expanded Judea to near Solomonic size, and forcibly converted Idumea, the home of Herod's family. His coins read 'Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews.'

Aristobulus I

Son of John Hyrcanus and the first Hasmonean to take the title "king" (104 BCE), the first king of Judah since 586 BCE. He combined kingship and the high priesthood. After his time the dynasty fell into strife that led to Rome being "invited in" in 63 BCE.

Herod the Great

Idumean-descended Jewish client king named 'King of the Jews' by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE who took Jerusalem in 37 BCE after a five-month siege and ruled until 4 BCE. He built the Antonia (ca. 35 BCE), a palace with the towers Phasael, Mariamne, and Hippicus (ca. 23 BCE), a theater, a hippodrome, and began the Temple renovation (ca. 19 BCE), and enlarged the city to 190-230 acres. He created the pilgrimage economy and the Jerusalem of Jesus's day.

Augustus

First Roman emperor (27 BCE-14 CE) who confirmed Herod as client king, and to whom Herod built a temple at Caesarea Maritima. In 6 CE he deposed Herod's son Archelaus and made Judea a province under procurators such as Pontius Pilate. He marks Judea's shift from client kingdom to direct Roman rule.

Herodian oil lamp

Small, round, wheel-made clay lamp with a pinched nozzle, typical of Judea in the 1st century BCE-1st century CE. It is a common find in Jerusalem excavations and helps date Herodian-period layers. It reflects everyday life in the pilgrimage-economy city.

Soreg Inscription

Greek warning stone from the Temple's balustrade (soreg), Herodian period: no foreigner may go beyond the balustrade into the Temple zone, on pain of death. It marks the line between Jews and non-Jews in Herod's Temple. It shows how strictly the sacred precinct was guarded.

Herodian masonry

Large stones with smooth, flat, chiseled margins around a rough center, used in Herod's Temple Mount platform and Western Wall (late 1st c. BCE). It is a signature Herodian building style. It lets archaeologists identify what survives of Herod's work.

Vespasian

Roman general sent by Nero after the 12th Legion's defeat in 66 CE, with the 5th, 10th, and 15th Legions and about 65,000-78,000 troops, to crush the First Jewish Revolt. He became emperor in 69 CE (Flavian dynasty) and sent his son Titus to finish Jerusalem. The Colosseum was probably built partly with Jerusalem's plunder.

Titus

Vespasian's son who besieged Jerusalem with an army that included the revenge-seeking 12th Legion and destroyed the Temple on 28 August (9 Av) 70 CE, razing the rest of the city in following weeks. He later became emperor (79-81 CE). He ends the Second Temple period and is commemorated by the Arch of Titus and Judea Capta coins.

Roman Aquila Standard

A legion's gold eagle standard (aquila), topped on a pole bearing 'SPQR' (the Senate and People of Rome). The 12th Legion's eagle was captured at Beth Horon in 66 CE after Cestius Gallus's inexplicable retreat from a six-day siege. Losing it was the ultimate disgrace, and Cline suggests the Roman campaigns of 67-70 CE were partly to avenge it.

Arch of Titus

Triumphal arch in Rome (built after 81 CE) celebrating Titus's victory in Judea, with a relief of soldiers carrying the Temple's menorah and other vessels. It is visual proof of the 70 CE destruction and looting. The plunder and enslaved captives helped fund the Colosseum.

Shimon bar Koseba

Leader of the 132-135 CE revolt, nicknamed Bar Kokhba ('son of the star'), whom Rabbi Akiba and others took to be the Messiah; his real name was probably Shimeon Bar Kosiba. After years of guerrilla success (it took up to 80,000 Roman soldiers to suppress), he was killed at Bethar. His coins read 'For the Freedom of Jerusalem'; defeat brought expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem and the renaming Syria Palaestina.

Hadrian

Roman emperor (117-138 CE) who during his 129-30 CE tour announced Jerusalem would be refounded as Aelia Capitolina and banned circumcision, kosher laws, and Torah study. This provoked the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-135 CE), after which he expelled Jews from the city and renamed Judea Syria Palaestina. Sources differ: Cassius Dio says the new city sparked the revolt, Eusebius that it was punishment for it.

Aelia Capitolina

Roman colony Hadrian founded on Jerusalem's ruins (announced 129-30 CE, in force after 135 CE): 'Aelia' for his family name, 'Capitolina' for the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva). It had a cardo (north-south) and decumanus (east-west) grid and a temple to Jupiter, Jews were forbidden to live there, and it was a minor garrison town of the 10th Legion. Its street plan shaped the later Old City.