Docs, Articles, & Democracies

Participatory Democracy

Emphasizes broad, direct citizen involvement in politics and civil society through actions like town halls, protests, and state ballot initiatives.

Elite Democracy

Emphasizes limited citizen participation where a small, well-educated group of elites makes decisions and filters the public will (seen in structures like the Electoral College or lifetime judicial appointments).

Pluralist Democracy

Emphasizes group-based activism and competing non-governmental interest groups (like the NAACP or labor unions) trying to influence public policy

Article I

(legislative branch) Establishes Congress (House and Senate), grants enumerated powers (like making laws, taxing, and regulating commerce), and contains the Elastic (Necessary and Proper) Clause.

Article II

(Executive branch) Establishes the Presidency, outlines qualifications, duties, and the election process (Electoral College), and names the president as Commander-in-Chief.

Article III

(Judicial branch) Creates the Supreme Court, grants Congress the power to create lower federal courts, and defines treason.

Article IV

(The states) Defines federalism and state-to-state relations, including the Full Faith and Credit Clause and the process for admitting new states.

Article V

(Amendment process) Explains how the Constitution can be changed via a two-thirds vote in Congress and three-fourths state ratification.

Article VI

(Supremacy Clause) Declares the Constitution and federal laws as the "supreme Law of the Land" and bans religious tests for public office

Article VII

(Ratification process) Outlines the requirement that nine of the thirteen states must approve the Constitution for it to take effect.

Bill of Rights

Protects vital individual civil liberties from federal overreach, demanded by Anti-Federalists.

The Reconstruction Amendments (13,14,15)

Abolished slavery, established birthright citizenship, equal protection, and due process (14th Amendment), and protected voting rights regardless of race.

Voting/Electoral Adjustments (17, 19, 22, 25, 26)

Provided for direct election of Senators (17th), women's suffrage (19th), presidential term limits (22nd), presidential succession (25th), and lowering the voting age to 18 (26th)

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Argues for natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness), popular sovereignty, and a social contract. It justifies breaking away from Britain if a government fails to protect people's rights.

Articles of Confederation (1781)

The first U.S. constitution. It created a very weak central government with no power to tax or enforce laws, leaving most power with the states.

Federalist No. 10 (1787)

Written by James Madison. It argues that a large republic is the best defense against dangerous political factions because competing interests dilute the power of majorities.

Federalist No. 39 (1788)

Written by James Madison. It defines the republican form of government and argues that the proposed Constitution balances federal and national power

The U.S. Constitution (1787) & Bill of Rights (1791)

Establishes the framework of the federal government through the separation of powers, checks and balances, and federalism, while the first 10 amendments protect basic civil liberties.

Federalist No. 51 (1788)

Written by James Madison. It explains how separation of powers and checks and balances control government power, noting that "ambition must be made to counteract ambition"

Federalist No. 70 (1788)

Written by Alexander Hamilton. It argues for a single, energetic, and unified executive to ensure accountability and quick action in times of crisis.

Federalist No. 78 (1788)

Written by Alexander Hamilton. It defends life terms for federal judges to maintain an independent judiciary with the power of judicial review.

Gettysburg Address (1863)

Abraham Lincoln's short speech redefining the Civil War as a struggle to preserve a nation dedicated to human equality.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Abraham Lincoln's executive order declaring freedom for enslaved people in Confederate-held areas during the Civil War.

Brutus No. 1

(Anti-Federalist) — An essay that critiques the proposed Constitution and argues for greater direct participation and smaller republics.