Psych exam review 1

Critical thinking

The process of analyzing and evaluating information and arguments to form a judgment.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that focused on breaking down mental processes into their basic components, using introspection as a method to study the mind.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology that emphasized the function of mental processes in enabling individuals to adapt to their environments, focusing on the purpose of behavior.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that studies behavior without reference to mental processes, emphasizing the role of environmental influences on observable behavior.

Humanistic psychology

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of individual experience, focusing on personal growth and self-actualization.

Cognitive psychology

The study of how people think, learn, remember, perceive, solve problems, and process information.The study of how people think, learn, remember, perceive, solve problems, and process information.

Cognitive neuroscience

The study of how brain activity and structures produce mental processes such as thinking, memory, learning, and perception.

Psychology culture

The study of how culture, beliefs, values, and social norms influence people’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Bio psychosocial approach

The idea that biological, psychological, and social factors work together to influence a person’s behavior, thoughts, and health.

Nature/nurture issue

The debate over whether behavior and development are mainly influenced by genetics (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture).

Dual processing

The idea that we process information using two systems: a fast, automatic process and a slower, conscious, deliberate process.

Counseling psychology

A branch of psychology that helps people manage everyday problems, stress, relationships, and life challenges to improve well-being.

Clinical psychology

The branch of psychology that assesses, diagnoses, and treats mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Psychiatry

A medical specialty focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders, including through medications and other medical treatments.

Community psychology

The study of how people’s communities and social environments affect their well-being and behavior, often focusing on improving communities and preventing problems.

Positive psychology

The study of what makes people thrive, focusing on strengths, happiness, well-being, and meaningful life experiences.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event happens, that you could have predicted it all along (“I knew it!”).

Peer reviewers

Experts in the same field who evaluate research before it is published to check its quality, accuracy, and validity.

Theory

A well-supported explanation that organizes observations and helps predict behavior or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables that can be supported or rejected by research.

Operational definition

A specific, measurable description of how a variable is defined and measured in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the same or similar results occur again, helping confirm that the findings are reliable.

Preregistration

Publicly recording a study’s hypotheses, methods, and analysis plan before collecting data to reduce bias and changing the plan after seeing results.

Case study

An in-depth study of one person, group, or situation to gain detailed information.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interfering or manipulating the situation.

Survey

A research method that collects information from people through questionnaires or interviews to study attitudes, behaviors, or opinions.

Population

The entire group of people that a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables, showing whether they tend to change together, but not proving that one causes the other.

Experiment

A research method where researchers manipulate one variable and measure its effect on another to determine cause and effect.

Random assignment

Placing participants by chance into different groups in an experiment to make the groups similar and reduce preexisting differences.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or condition being tested.

Control group

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a comparison to see its effects.

Placebo

A fake treatment that looks like the real treatment but has no active ingredient, used to measure the effects of participants’ expectations.

Double-blind procedure

Placebo effect

A research method where neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is receiving the treatment or placebo, reducing bias.

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher changes or controls to see if it affects another variable.

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled factor that could affect the results, making it difficult to know whether the independent variable caused the outcome.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured to see whether it is affected by the independent variable.

Informed consent

The process of telling research participants about the study and its risks before they agree to participate.

Debriefing

The process of explaining the study’s purpose, procedures, and any deception to participants after the study is completed.

Testing effect

The tendency for taking a test or practicing retrieval of information to improve later memory of that information.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change and reorganize its structure and connections in response to learning, experience, or injury.

Neuron

A nerve cell that receives, processes, and sends information through electrical and chemical signals.

Cell body

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and keeps the cell alive by carrying out its basic functions.

Dendrites

Branch-like parts of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and send them toward the cell body.

Axon

The long part of a neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Action potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels down a neuron’s axon when the neuron reaches its threshold, allowing it to send a signal.

Glial cells (glia)

Cells that support, protect, nourish, and insulate neurons and help them function properly.

Synapse

The tiny gap between neurons where chemical signals (neurotransmitters) pass information from one neuron to another.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Refractory period

The brief time after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again or is less likely to fire, allowing it to reset.

All-or-none response

The idea that a neuron either fires a full action potential or does not fire at all—there is no partial action potential.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that carry signals across the synapse from one neuron to another neuron, muscle, or gland.

Reuptake

The process where a neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse, stopping or reducing their effects.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals produced by the body that reduce pain and can create feelings of pleasure or well-being.

Nervous system

The body’s communication system that uses electrical and chemical signals to control and coordinate thoughts, movements, sensations, and other functions.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and control the body’s responses.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

All the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundles of axons that carry messages between the brain/spinal cord and the rest of the body.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors toward the brain and spinal cord.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry commands from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, causing movement or other responses.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the brain and spinal cord, helping process information and coordinate responses.

Somatic nervous system

The part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and carries sensory information to the CNS.

Autonomic nervous system (ATS)

The part of the PNS that automatically controls involuntary functions like heart rate, breathing, digestion, and blood pressure.

Sympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the “fight-or-flight” response, preparing the body for action.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and supports “rest-and-digest” functions like digestion and slowing heart rate.

Reflex

An automatic, unplanned response to a stimulus, often occurring without conscious thought.

Endocrine system

The body’s system of glands that releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate functions like growth, metabolism, mood, and reproduction.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream that regulate body processes like growth, mood, metabolism, and reproduction.

Adrenal glands

Glands above the kidneys that release hormones like adrenaline and cortisol to help the body respond to stress.

Pituitary gland

A small gland at the base of the brain that releases hormones controlling growth and other endocrine glands.

EEG (electroencephalograph)

A device that records the brain’s electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

A brain-imaging technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by brain activity.

PET (positron emission tomography)

A brain scan that uses a radioactive tracer to show brain activity and how the brain uses glucose.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A brain-imaging technique that uses magnets and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain’s structure.

FMRI (functional MRI)

A brain-imaging technique that shows which areas of the brain are active by measuring changes in blood flow.

Hindbrain

The lower part of the brain that controls basic survival functions like breathing, heart rate, sleep, and balance.

Midbrain

The part of the brain involved in movement, alertness, and processing visual and auditory information.

Forebrain

The largest and most advanced part of the brain, responsible for thinking, emotions, memory, sensory processing, and voluntary movement.

Brainstem

The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic automatic functions like breathing, heartbeat, and sleep.

Medulla

The part of the brainstem that controls automatic vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Thalamus

A brain structure that acts as a sensory relay station, sending most sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain for processing.

Reticular formation

A network in the brainstem that controls arousal, alertness, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Cerebellum

The brain region that helps control balance, coordination, posture, and smooth movement, and also supports motor learning.

Limbic system

A group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat, and helping form emotional memories.

Hypothalamus

A small brain structure that maintains homeostasis by regulating hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep, and hormone release.

Hippothalamus

A brain structure involved in forming new memories and learning, especially for facts and events.

Cerebral cortex

The brain’s outer layer responsible for thinking, perception, language, memory, and voluntary movement.

Frontal lobes

The brain areas involved in planning, decision-making, personality, speech, and voluntary movement.

Parietal lobes

Brain areas that process touch and body sensations and help with spatial awareness and movement.

Occipital lobes

Brain areas that primarily process visual information, helping you see and interpret what you see.

Temporal lobes

Brain areas involved in hearing, language, memory, and processing sounds and meaning.

Motor cortex

The brain area that controls voluntary movements by sending signals to your muscles.

Somatosensory cortex

The brain area that processes touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position.

Corpus callosum

A thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate.

Split brain

A condition caused by cutting the corpus callosum, preventing the brain’s two hemispheres from communicating normally.

Critical period

A specific time in development when the brain is especially ready to learn a particular skill or ability, and missing it can make learning much harder.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, problem-solving, and making decisions.