AP PYSCH 2.2-2.8 Cognition

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

The most typical example of a concept

Schema

A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using an existing schema

Accommodation

Changing an existing schema or creating a new one to fit new information

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that saves time but does not always lead to the correct answer

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how closely something matches a typical example

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental Set

Using a solution that worked before even when a better solution may exist

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions and judgments

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing past random outcomes affect future independent outcomes

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because of the time, money, or effort already invested

Functional Fixedness

Seeing an object only in terms of its usual function

Creativity

The ability to produce original and useful ideas

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing choices to find one best solution

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that supports what you already believe

Belief Perseverance

Continuing to believe something even after evidence disproves it

Overconfidence

Being more confident in your knowledge or judgments than accuracy justifies

Intuition

An immediate judgment or feeling without deliberate reasoning

Memory

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Encoding

Getting information into a form the brain can store

Storing

Retaining information over time

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed

Explicit Memory

Memories of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious recall

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and how to do things

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A lasting strengthening of connections between neurons that supports learning and memory

Multi-Store Model

The model that divides memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

Sensory Memory

A brief recording of sensory information

Iconic Memory

Brief visual sensory memory

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory sensory memory

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious attention and effort

Automatic Processing

Encoding that occurs with little or no conscious effort

Working Memory

A system that actively holds and processes information for a short time

Central Executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates mental tasks

Phonological Loop

The part of working memory that temporarily holds and rehearses verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The part of working memory that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on surface features such as appearance or sound

Deep Processing

Encoding information by focusing on meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

Structural Processing

Encoding based on how a word looks

Phonemic Processing

Encoding based on how a word sounds

Semantic Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of information

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that help organize and recall information

Method of Loci

A memory technique that connects information to familiar places along a mental route

Category

A grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Hierarchy

An organization system that arranges information from broad categories to specific subcategories

Massed Practice

Studying information repeatedly in one long session

Distributed Practice

Spreading study sessions over time to improve retention

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember

Spacing Effect

Learning improves when study sessions are spread out over time

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember items at the end of a list

Storage

Retaining encoded information over time

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to improve long-term memory

Recall

Retrieving information without being given answer choices

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when it is presented again

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when you are in the same environment where you learned information

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that match your current mood

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when your internal or physical state matches the state during learning

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for events and experiences from your own life

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories from before an injury or event

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty forming new long-term memories after an injury or event

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall most memories from early childhood

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive brain disorder that damages memory and other cognitive abilities

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information from memory

The Forgetting Curve

Shows how memory retention decreases over time

Encoding Failure

When information never gets properly stored in memory

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with remembering new information

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with remembering old information

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Temporarily being unable to recall a known word or name

Psychodynamic Perspective

The perspective that emphasizes unconscious thoughts and conflicts

Defense Mechanism

An unconscious strategy used to protect oneself from anxiety or uncomfortable feelings

Repression

Unconsciously pushing distressing thoughts or memories out of awareness

Ego

The realistic part of personality that balances the id, superego, and demands of reality

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information alters a person's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting where it came from

Constructive Memory

Reconstructing memories using stored information, expectations, and later experiences

Memory Consolidation

The process of stabilizing memories so they can be stored long-term

Imagination Inflation

Imagining an event increases the belief that it actually happened

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

General Intelligence (g)

Spearman's idea that one general mental ability contributes to performance across many tasks

Multiple Intelligences

The theory that people have several different types of intelligence

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A standardized score used to measure intellectual abilities compared with others

Mental Age

The level of intellectual performance typical of a particular age group

Standardization

Establishing consistent testing procedures and norms using a representative sample

Valid

Measures what it is supposed to measure

Construct Validity

How well a test measures the psychological trait it is intended to measure

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future performance

Reliable

Produces consistent results

Test-Retest Reliability

Giving the same test to the same people at different times and comparing their scores