Unit 1 Research Methods

Experiment

An experiment aims to determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables.

True experiment

A researcher manipulates an independent variable, measures a dependent variable, and controls all other variables. Participants are randomly allocated to conditions.

Quasi-experiment

A type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs.

Independent variable (IV)

The factor the researcher manipulates in a controlled experiment (the cause).

Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Generalizability

The extent to which quantitative research results apply to a broader range of individuals not included in the study.

Internal validity

The level to which we are confident that the independent variable affected the dependent variable.

External validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Credibility

The believability, trustworthiness, and accuracy of a study's findings, or the extent to which an information source or experiment can be relied upon to provide truth

Reliability

The consistency and reproducibility of a measurement tool or research study

Self-Selected (Volunteer)

The fancy word for volunteers responding to a request for participants.

Opportunity Sampling (Convenience)

Participants are selected based on convenience and availability.

Random Sampling

Every member of a target population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified Sampling

Considers the diversity of a sample by random sampling from each subpopulation of a population.

Snowball Sampling

Participants recruit other participants, and the sample grows like a snowball rolling down a hill.

WEIRD Sampling

The heavy and disproportionate reliance on research participants from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies

Overt

The participant being observed is aware of the researcher's presence

Controlled

Observing in a lab setting

Naturalistic

Observing in a natural environment

Covert

The participant being observed is not aware of the researcher's presence

Participant

The researcher is a part of the observed group

Non-Participant

The researcher is separate from the observed group

Structured

Follow an interview guide, a strict set of predetermined questions in a specific order, which ensures consistency across all participants

Semi-Structured

Offers a balance between structure and flexibility. While there is a guide of topics and questions, the interviewer can ask further into certain areas depending on the interviewee's responses.

Focus Group

A group interview is used to study what people think or feel about a topic. The group size usually ranges from five to ten people who share common characteristics.

Interviewer Effects

-Tone of voice

-Body Language

-Leading Questions

-Age, gender, cultural differences.

Can lead to a lack of disclosure or increase social desirability bias.

Establishing Rapport

Refers to building trust between the interviewer and participant. When participants feel respected and at ease, they are more likely to provide honest, detailed, and thoughtful responses. Researchers also must balance warmth and professionalism to make sure bias isn't brought.

Ambiguous Questions

Use unclear terms that participants may interpret differently. Also due to the use of words like "often", "normal", "good" or "successful".

Social Desirability Effect

Make participants want to present themselves in a positive way.

Implicit Bias

Leading questions assume a preferred answer- that is, the answer is in the question. These questions guide the participant in how they are supposed to answer the question.

Double-Barreled Questions

Combine multiple issues in on question. The participant may agree with one part of the question but not the other, which makes the response unclear.

Unrealistic Objectivity

Questions that are overly abstract or hypothetical. These require participants to predict future behavior, recall distant memories, evaluate themselves accurately, and make complex moral judgments quickly. This leads to hypothetical bias.

Recall Bias

A systematic error that happens when study participants do not remember past events or experiences accurately or leave out important details when they self-report data

Optimism Bias

When people have a more positive view of their own behavior than is actually the case. When asked about habits such as diet respondents may report what they believe they usually do or intend to do rather than what they consistently do in reality.

Hypothetical Bias

Occurs when participants say they would behave a certain way in hypothetical situations., but their real-life behavior would likely differ.

Thematic Analysis

A qualitative method used to identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within interview data. It involves examining transcripts, coding meaningful units of texts, identifying themes, and writing an interpretation.

Coding

The process of systematically labeling meaningful segments of interview data in order to identify patterns, categories, or themes for analysis.

Priori Coding

A deductive approach. The themes are identified before the interviews are carried out, and the researcher then searches for evidence to support those themes when analyzing the transcripts. This type of coding is based on past research and is theory driven.

Emergent Coding

An inductive approach. The researcher carefully reads and re-reads transcripts, identifying patterns, repeated ideas, and meaningful concepts that naturally arise from participants' responses. This type of coding is data- driven and isn't driven by a predetermined theoretical framework.

Interview Guide

A flexible road map of open-ended questions, key topics, and prompts that a researcher uses to conduct qualitative interviews.

Recency Effect

Where people remember the most recently presented information in a sequence better than the items or events that came before it

Conformity Effect

The tendency of an individual to adjust their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or judgments to match the norms, standards, or majority opinion of a group.

Test-Retest Reliability

Measures the consistency and stability of a test or assessment tool over time

Questionnaire

Any written set of questions.

Survey

A set of questions and the process of collecting, aggregating, and analyzing the responses to those questions.

Likert Scale

A tool used in psychology and social sciences to measure attitudes, opinions, and unobservable personality traits. (Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree)

Acquiescence Bias

The tendency of participants to agree with a statement when they have no strong opinion. People are more comfortable agreeing rather than disagreeing with the researcher.

Non-Response Bias

Occurs when individuals who choose not to respond to certain questions differ in a meaningful way from those who do respond.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of human experience.

Longitudinal

Taking place over a significant period of time.

Cross-sectional

Retrospective

Collecting research about past experience- like childhood experiences.

Prospective

Looking at what will happen to a case from this point forward.

Idiographic

Focuses on understanding individuals in their unique context. These cases often attempt to resolve a problem or better understand a specific case.

Nomothetic

Focuses on more general phenomena of interest, such as losing a child, being homeless, or being diagnosed with cancer.

Triangulation

Triangulation means using multiple methods, data sources, or researchers to study the exact same topic.

Methodological Triangulation

Researchers use different research methods to study the same phenomenon. Ex) A researcher using interviews and surveys.

Data Triangulation

Researchers use different sources of data to confirm findings. Ex) A psychologist might collect data from multiple participants- his parents, his friends, his teacher.

Researcher Triangulation

Multiple researchers or observers interpret the data, analyze results, or conduct interviews to reduce bias.

Theoretical Triangulation

This type uses multiple theoretical perspectives to analyze and interpret the data. Ex) A cognitive and a biological perspective to provide a more holistic understanding of the behavior.

Representational Generalization

The process of applying research findings or data gathered from a specific sample to the broader target population from which that sample was drawn.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method that combines and analyzes the quantitative results of multiple independent studies on the same research question to create a single, larger, and more reliable conclusion.