ANT100 Unit 1 Exam pt2

Hunter Gatherer (foraging) 

1. H/G 

2. Affluent H/G. More sedentary, more complex social organization due to resource rich area) 

Pastoralism (8000-10,000 years ago) 

Raising and herding animals  

Horticulture

Growing plants and crops in a simple manner with simple tools. 

Agriculture  

A more complex level of horticulture where animals and other tools are used to scale efficiently  

Industrialism (Since late 1700s) 

Mechanical and chemical processes to create goods.

Why are hunter gatherers important to all humans?

Foundation of all human cultures  

What percentage of human existence has been as a hunter gatherer 

99.9%

Who has an ancestor that was a hunter gatherer? 

Everybody.  

What is the line between hunter gatherers and human origins and major human cultural institutions  

gradual evolutionary chain reaction

Material culture

Hunter-Gatherers had lightweight portable material culture 

Group size of Hunter-Gatherers

Small group size: extended families up to bands of 200-300 

Egalitarian

Hunter-Gatherers were largely egalitarian (no major differences in status, wealth, etc.) 

Reciprocity

economic form meaning widespread sharing which was common among hunter gatherers.

Richard Lee

Stated that all human institutions *(language, marriage, kinship family, exchange, and human nature itself)’ formed during the 2-4 million year period where we lived by hunting and gathering.

He also states that the kung lived amazing lives without the material items like wage labor, bank accounts, credit cards, etc.

The dobe Juho Ansi (!Kung / !Kung San)

An indigenous hunter-gatherer people native to the Kalahari desert regions Botswana in between Namibia

Langauge of the Kung

Their language uses very hard cut off sounds which are unlike most languages. 

Dobe

An area of 10 water holes in the western Kalahari.

Richard Lee

Main researcher of the Kung from 1963-1991 who’s main goal was a broad cultural ecology approach. To observe a foraging model of life during the last decades of its existence.

Gwisho Culture

A prehistoric hunter-gatherer culture in southern Africa. Archaeological evidence shows the Gwisho people maintained a similar lifestyle beginning around 200 BC and continuing afterward.

!Kung (Ju/'hoansi) Contact with Outsiders

The !Kung had very little contact with outsiders until the 1960s. Earlier contacts were limited to European hunters on safari and occasional government patrols, including one recorded in 1934.

John Marshall's !Kung Fieldwork

Anthropologist John Marshall began fieldwork among the !Kung in 1951. At that time, the !Kung had limited contact with outsiders, though neighboring Tswana and Herero peoples lived along the borders of their territory.

!Kung Environment & Climate

The !Kung lived in an environment with seasonal variations in rainfall and temperature. Their homeland included diverse landscapes such as open savannah grasslands, rocky and sandy areas, sand dunes, and timber and brush growing along dry riverbeds.

!Kung Water Sources & Daily Life

The !Kung obtained water from permanent water holes in riverbeds, seasonal water sources that lasted 1 to 6 months, and moisture stored in plants and tree roots. The heaviest rains usually occurred from December through March, and the !Kung adapted to the hot climate by working in the early morning and late afternoon while resting during the hottest part of the day.

Irvine DeVore

Anthropologist Irvine DeVore conducted ethnobotanical research with the !Kung in the Kalahari Desert of Africa, studying how they used natural resources for food, medicine, and other everyday needs. His work helped document the !Kung's extensive knowledge of local plants and their adaptation to a harsh desert environment.

Meat and Social Life Among the !Kung

Meat had great social value among the !Kung, and nearly every activity related to obtaining and consuming it was a social event. Tracking, hunting, butchering, cooking, and eating meat were typically done within a group and helped strengthen cooperation and social bonds within the community.

!Kung Sharing Customs

The !Kung emphasized humility, modesty, and sharing. Hunters often traded arrows before a hunt so the owner of the arrow, rather than the hunter, received credit for the kill and distributed the meat, helping prevent jealousy; they also practiced "insulting the meat," jokingly criticizing a successful kill to keep hunters humble, and shared food broadly as long as everyone contributed effort to the group.

!Kung Band Size

The average !Kung band consisted of about 31 people, with most bands ranging from 23 to 40 members. Small band sizes helped members cooperate, share resources, and remain mobile.

!Kung Work Effort

The !Kung spent an average of about 20 hours per week, obtaining food for subsistence. This suggests they did not have to work constantly to meet their basic needs.

Division of Labor Among the !Kung

Both men and women gathered food, but only men hunted. Men worked about 2.7 days per week and women about 2.1 days per week, with men contributing some gathered foods in addition to hunted meat.

!Kung Total Work Week

When all tasks and chores were included, the !Kung averaged about 40 to 45 hours of work per week, similar to many modern societies. This challenges the idea that hunter-gatherers spent all their time searching for food.

!Kung vs. Modern American Work

Studies found that the total work effort of the !Kung was comparable to that of people in the United States, even though Americans often use labor-saving technology. This comparison suggests that hunter-gatherer life was not necessarily more labor-intensive.

!Kung Diet and Nutrition

The !Kung averaged about 9.1 ounces of meat per person per day, producing roughly 175 to 200 pounds annually per person. Their diet provided about 2,355 calories and 96.6 grams of protein daily, indicating excellent nutrition by world standards.

The Original Affluent Society

Research suggests that the !Kung did not have to work extremely hard to make a living and generally met their needs with relatively modest labor. This challenges the stereotype that hunter-gatherers lived in constant hardship and starvation.

Sharing and Survival Among the !Kung

The !Kung sharing system distributed food throughout the band and increased the chances of survival for everyone. By sharing resources, the group achieved a higher quality of life than would likely have been possible through individual effort alone.

!Kung and the Myth of Constant Survival Struggles

Evidence from the !Kung shows that hunter-gatherers could maintain good nutrition and stable food supplies rather than living in a constant struggle for survival. Their experience challenges earlier assumptions about prehistoric life.

Starvation and Human Societies

Although the !Kung generally maintained adequate nutrition, periods of starvation could still occur. Such food shortages are not unique to hunter-gatherers and have occurred in societies of all sizes throughout history.

!Kung Marriage

!Kung marriages were usually arranged and practiced band exogamy (marrying outside one's band) because many band members were related by blood or marriage. This helped prevent competition within the band and created social connections between different groups.

Gift Exchange in Marriage

Marriage among the !Kung involved gift exchanges between the families of the bride and groom. If the marriage ended, the gifts were generally expected to be returned.

Bride Service

Before settling permanently, a !Kung husband typically lived with his wife's family for 3 to 6 months. This bride service allowed him to learn a new territory, build relationships with his in-laws, and compensate the bride's family for the loss of her labor and presence when she later moved to his village.

Polygyny

Polygyny, in which one man has two or more wives, was permitted among the !Kung but was relatively rare. Most marriages remained monogamous despite the practice being allowed.

Forms of Polygamy

Polygamy refers to having multiple spouses and includes polygyny (one man with multiple wives) and polyandry (one woman with multiple husbands). Among the !Kung, these arrangements were generally permitted rather than legally required.

Gender Equality Among the !Kung

The !Kung traditionally practiced a high degree of sexual equality, with few sexual double standards and little evidence of domestic abuse in their traditional society. Relationships were generally characterized by mutual respect and cooperation between men and women.

!Kung Camps

Traditional !Kung camps were small bands made up largely of blood relatives and relatives by marriage. These camps served as the primary social and economic units of everyday life.

Kausi

A kausi was a group of related older siblings associated with the ownership and use of a particular waterhole. Bands were often organized around these kinship relationships, sometimes including groups of brothers.

Client Groups

More recently, some !Kung families formed client groups in which one or two families became attached to a cattle post. This arrangement increased interaction with neighboring herding communities.

Flexible Social Organization

!Kung social organization was highly flexible, with camp membership changing because of visits, resource availability, and social relationships. People could move between groups as conditions changed.

Sharing Units

Regardless of size or type, each !Kung camp functioned as a unit of sharing. Food, water, and other resources were distributed among members to support the well-being of the group.

Reciprocity and Hospitality

Visitors or newcomers who needed food or water could request assistance and were generally never refused. This practice of sharing created reciprocal obligations, ensuring help would be available when needed in the future.

N!ore

A N!ore was the area surrounding a waterhole and was associated with a particular K”ausi group. Although groups had recognized rights to these areas, visitors could ask permission to use the land and resources and were typically never refused.

Reciprocal Visiting

The !Kung practiced reciprocal visiting between bands, allowing people to travel, share resources, and maintain social ties. Hospitality created mutual obligations so assistance could be expected in the future when needed.

!Kung Land Ownership

Land was held collectively by groups rather than by individual owners. Each N!ore was associated with a K”ausi, which helped organize access to water and resources while still encouraging sharing.

Maintaining Social Order

The !Kung maintained social harmony without formal leaders through widespread sharing and limited private property, which reduced competition and conflict. Community pressure was also important in regulating behavior.

Gossip, Ridicule, and Avoidance

Gossip, ridicule, and avoidance were important methods of social control among the !Kung. In small communities, these informal pressures encouraged cooperation and discouraged selfish or disruptive behavior.

!Kung Interdependence

!Kung society depended on a high level of interdependence, with individuals relying on one another for food, water, protection, and support. This strong network of cooperation helped maintain group survival and unity.

Levels of Conflict

The !Kung recognized different levels of conflict, ranging from talking and argument (za), to physical fighting, and finally to deadly violence. Most disputes were resolved before reaching the most serious stage.

Punishment for Serious Crimes

In rare cases, a murderer could be killed by the group to end a dispute and restore harmony. This represented one of the few situations in which collective authority was exercised to protect the community.

Hxaro Exchange

Hxaro was a system of delayed, reciprocal, and non-equal exchange among the !Kung in which almost any goods except food and people could be given as gifts. Its main purpose was to build and maintain social relationships rather than acquire material goods, reflected in sayings such as “We don't trade with things, we trade with people” and “In Hxaro you are never done.” Wealth was measured by the number of friends and exchange partners a person had, and Hxaro helped reinforce alliances, reduce risk, and provide support during times of need.

Gangwasi

Gangwasi are the ghosts of recently deceased Ju/'hoansi people. Serious illness, misfortune, and death were often attributed to the influence of these spirits, who were believed to maintain connections with the living.

N/um

N/um is a spiritual healing power or medicine given by the gods to both men and women and believed to reside in the stomach. It is the source of a healer's ability to cure illness and interact with the spirit world.

!Kung Beliefs About Death

The !Kung believed that long life and the timing of death were determined by God. Death was viewed as a struggle between loving living relatives and deceased relatives, with the dead sometimes trying to draw the living to join them.

Shaman

A shaman was a trained healer who used n/um to treat illness and help others. Shamans entered trance states, communicated with spirits, used herbal remedies, and performed healing rituals to free sick people from spiritual harm.

!Kia (Trance Dance)

The !kia or trance dance was the main religious and healing ritual of the !Kung. Held from monthly to several times per week, it allowed shamans to enter trances, heal the sick, and strengthen social bonds within the community.

Traditional !Kung Healing

!Kung healers could provide practical and spiritual treatments, including setting bones, prescribing herbs, suggesting dietary changes, and conducting healing rituals. The exact methods varied according to cultural beliefs and individual circumstances.

Changing Religious Beliefs

Traditional !Kung religious beliefs have changed over time due to contact with neighboring African societies and outside influences. These interactions introduced new ideas about illness, sorcery, and religion while altering some older traditions.

Herero and Tswana Influence on the !Kung

When the Herero and Tswana entered the Dobe area around 1920, they brought new technologies and practices, including metal tools, containers, tobacco, animal herding, and crop cultivation. Increased contact led many !Kung to work at cattle posts, experience environmental changes around wells and grazing areas, intermarry with neighboring groups, and adopt some new legal and religious ideas.

Changes in !Kung Society Since the 1960s

The !Kung lived in relative isolation until the 1960s, but rapid contact with the outside world transformed their lives within a decade. Government policies, permanent settlements, schools, clinics, hunting restrictions, roads, fences, and wage labor reduced traditional foraging, mobility, and independence, leading to increased economic dependence, social inequality, health problems, and conflict within communities.

Decline of Traditional Foraging

Traditional foraging provided more than 85% of the !Kung diet but fell to about 30% by 1965 due to overgrazing, roads, fences, and settlement programs. These changes limited access to resources and undermined the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

Sedentism

During the 1970s, many !Kung were forced into permanent settlements with houses, schools, and cattle enclosures. This loss of mobility weakened traditional economic and social systems that depended on seasonal movement.

Wage Labor and Dependency

Many !Kung men began working on farms, cattle posts, and in gold mines, creating new sources of income but also increasing dependence on outside employers. This shift reduced the economic independence that had characterized traditional !Kung society.

Social Effects of Modernization

Modernization contributed to a breakdown of traditional sharing practices and increased wealth differences, social conflict, alcohol use, and the subordination of women. These changes also created tensions between generations and between people with different levels of education.

Health Changes Among the !Kung

As traditional foods were replaced by diets containing more refined carbohydrates, rates of health problems such as high blood pressure, cholesterol, heart disease, and diabetes increased. Overall nutrition and health declined compared to earlier times.

Nyae Nyae Foundation

The Nyae Nyae Foundation and related organizations have worked to help the Ju/'hoansi maintain control over their land, improve infrastructure, and create economic opportunities. Their efforts aim to increase independence and preserve important aspects of traditional culture.

Cultural Tourism

Cultural tourism has become an important source of income for some Ju/'hoansi communities. Visitors learn about traditional skills and culture while providing economic support to local people.

Land Rights and Conservation Conflicts

Government conservation programs have sometimes attempted to establish wildlife preserves while restricting traditional Ju/'hoansi foraging. These policies have created conflicts over land use and indigenous rights.

Importance of Studying the !Kung

The !Kung provide valuable insights into communal systems of production, sharing, and decision-making. Their knowledge of plants, animals, and the environment demonstrates alternative ways of living sustainably within natural ecosystems.

Indigenous Knowledge

The preservation of groups such as the Ju/'hoansi is important because they possess extensive knowledge of local plants, animals, geography, and environmental relationships. This knowledge represents generations of experience and adaptation.

Alternative Ways of Living

The !Kung illustrate that societies can be organized around cooperation, sharing, and communal responsibility rather than competition and accumulation of wealth. Their culture offers a different perspective on democracy, justice, and the use of resources.

Hunter-Gatherers and Nature

The !Kung traditionally viewed themselves as part of nature and sought to live within environmental limits, whereas many food-producing societies focus on altering the environment to meet human needs. This contrast highlights different approaches to human-environment relationships.

Language and Cultural Knowledge

Each language reflects a unique way of understanding and interpreting the world. Preserving the Ju/'hoansi language helps preserve cultural knowledge, history, and distinctive perspectives on life and nature.