AP EXAM 1

Anatomy

Study of body structures, internal and external ("the what")

Physiology

Study of body functions ("the how/why")

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

Study of structures you can see with the naked eye

Microscopic anatomy

Study of structures you need magnification to see

Surface anatomy

Gross anatomy of the body's external features

Regional anatomy

Gross anatomy done one body region at a time

Systemic anatomy

Gross anatomy done one organ system at a time

Developmental anatomy

Study of structural changes from conception through life

Clinical anatomy

Anatomy applied to medicine and diagnosis

Cytology

Study of cells

Histology

Study of tissues

Cell physiology

Study of the functions of cells

Organ physiology

Study of the functions of individual organs

Systemic physiology

Study of how whole organ systems function (e.g., cardiovascular, renal)

Chemical (molecular) level

Lowest level of organization: atoms and molecules, the building blocks of matter

Cellular level

Level of organization: the smallest unit of life

Tissue level

Level of organization: a group of similar cells doing a similar job

Organ level

Level of organization: two or more tissues working together

Organ system level

Level of organization: multiple organs working together

Organism level

Highest level of organization: the whole living being (e.g., a human)

Integumentary system

Skin, hair, and nails; protects the body

Skeletal system

Bones and joints; support, protection, and movement

Muscular system

Skeletal muscles; movement and heat production

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves; fast electrical control

Lymphatic system

Lymph vessels and nodes; immunity and fluid return

Endocrine system

Glands that release hormones; slower, longer-lasting control

Cardiovascular system

Heart and blood vessels; transport of blood

Digestive system

Breaks down and absorbs food

Respiratory system

Gas exchange (brings in O2, removes CO2)

Urinary system

Removes wastes and balances fluids and electrolytes

Reproductive system

Produces offspring

Metabolism

All chemical reactions in the body (catabolism + anabolism)

Catabolism

Breaking big molecules down into smaller ones

Anabolism

Building small molecules up into larger ones

Organization (life process)

Living things have specific, ordered structure

Sensitivity (responsiveness)

Ability to sense and respond to internal and external changes

Growth and development

Increase in size and change/specialization over time

Reproduction

Making new cells (cell level) or new organisms (organism level)

Evolution

Change in a population over generations

Homeostasis

Keeping a stable, dynamic internal environment despite internal or external changes

Autoregulation (intrinsic regulation)

Local control by the affected cell, tissue, or organ itself

Extrinsic regulation

Control by the nervous and/or endocrine systems

Nervous system regulation

Electrical, rapid, short-term, immediate effects

Endocrine system regulation

Hormones; slower, longer-lasting, widespread effects

Stimulus

The change that kicks off a feedback loop

Receptor

Senses the change (stimulus) in a feedback loop

Control center (integration center)

Processes the information and decides the response (e.g., brain)

Effector

Carries out the response in a feedback loop

Response

The result produced by the effector

Negative feedback

Reverses the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose, pH, blood pressure)

Positive feedback

Amplifies the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth)

Homeostatic imbalance

When homeostasis fails; the cause of most diseases

Signs

Objective evidence of disease that others can observe or measure

Symptoms

Subjective changes the patient feels and reports

Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

Solid

State of matter with definite shape and definite volume

Liquid

State of matter with definite volume but changeable shape

Gas

State of matter with changeable shape and volume

Energy

The capacity to do work (put matter into motion)

Kinetic energy

Energy in action

Potential energy

Stored (inactive) energy; energy of position

Element

Unique substance that can't be broken down by ordinary chemical means

Atom

Smallest unit of an element; its building block

Atomic symbol

One- or two-letter shorthand for an element

Four major elements of the human body

Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)

Proton

Positive charge, mass of 1 amu, found in the nucleus

Neutron

No charge, mass of 1 amu, found in the nucleus

Electron

Negative charge, almost no mass (about 1/2000 of a proton), orbits the nucleus

Atomic number

Number of protons

Mass number

Number of protons + number of neutrons

Atomic weight

Average of the mass numbers of all an element's isotopes

Isotope

Atoms of the same element with the same protons but different neutrons (e.g., carbon-14)

Molecule

Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

Compound

Two or more different kinds of atoms chemically bonded together

Mixture

Two or more components physically mixed (not chemically bonded)

Solution

A homogeneous mixture

Solvent

The substance present in the greatest amount in a solution

Solute

The substance(s) present in smaller amounts in a solution

Colloid (emulsion)

Heterogeneous mixture whose solutes do NOT settle out

Suspension

Heterogeneous mixture with visible solutes that DO settle out

Mixtures vs. compounds

Mixtures can be separated physically; compounds cannot

Electron shell (energy level)

Region around the nucleus where electrons orbit

Valence shell

Outermost energy level; its electrons form bonds

Octet rule

Atoms interact to get 8 electrons in the valence shell (2 for the first shell)

Chemically inert element

Outermost energy level is full

Chemically reactive element

Outermost energy level is NOT full

Ion

A charged atom that gained or lost electrons

Anion

Ion that GAINED electrons (negative)

Cation

Ion that LOST electrons (positive)

Ionic bond

Bond formed by the transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl)

Covalent bond

Bond formed by the sharing of electrons

Nonpolar molecule

Electrons are shared equally

Polar molecule

Electrons are shared unequally

Electronegative atom

"Electron hungry"; 6 or 7 valence electrons (O, N, Cl)

Electropositive atom

1 or 2 valence electrons (K, Na)

Hydrogen bond

Weak attraction between polar molecules (e.g., water); gives molecules 3D shape and water surface tension

Chemical reaction

Occurs when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken

Combination (synthesis) reaction

A + B → AB; always forms bonds

Decomposition reaction

AB → A + B; molecules broken into smaller ones

Exchange reaction

AB + C → AC + B; bonds are made AND broken