Unit 2 Test 1 Cognition

Selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus excluding other sensory information

Inattentional blindness

failure to see objects when our attention is focused elsewhere

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to see things in a certain way based on expectations, experiences, and context.

Gestalt

the human brain naturally perceives objects, events, and experiences as organized, unified wholes rather than as a collection of separate, isolated parts

Figure-ground

a Gestalt principle of perceptual organization in which the brain automatically separates a visual scene into a main focus object (the figure) and the background behind it (the ground)

Grouping

we are wired to make sense of visual stimuli by grouping

Proximity

nearness

Similarity

likeness

Closure

filling in gaps to create complete images

Depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimension, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Visual cliff

tests depth perception in infants and young animals, partially innate, Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk

Binocular cue

depth cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive distance and three-dimensional space

Convergence

we detect tension in our eyes as they turn inward to view closer objects, allows us to determine distance

Retinal disparity

we note the differences between the images detected in each eye and use the information to calculate distance

Monocular cues

visual depth cues that can be processed with just one eye (or in two-dimensional images like paintings and photographs) to judge distance, depth, and three-dimensional space

Relative size

closer objects appear larger

Interposition

closer objects block the view of objects further away

Relative clarity

closer objects appear clearly

Texture gradient

texture is more coarse and detailed up close

Relative height

objects higher in our visual field are perceived as farther away and objects lower in our visual field as closer

Linear perspective

parallel lines appear to move towards one another in the distance

Motion perception

our ability to detect motion is imperfect, smaller objects seem to be moving faster than larger objects traveling at the same speed

Stroboscopic motion

we perceive constant motion in a rapid series of similar images

Phi phenomenon

the illusion of movement created when neighboring lights blink on and off in rapid succession

Autokinetic effect

a visual illusion that makes a stationary light appear to move in a dark or featureless environment

Perceptual constancy

we perceive objects as being unchanging even if our sensation of the object changes, applies to light, color, shape, and size

Color constancy

the brain's tendency to perceive familiar objects as having a consistent, unchanging color even when changing lighting conditions alter the wavelengths of light reflected by the objects

Experience and visual perception

the brain's active process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of visual sensory information (light waves converted into neural signals by the retina) to recognize meaningful objects, faces, and events

Perceptual adaptation

the ability of our sensory systems to adjust to changing sensory input

Cognition

refers to the mental activity that occurs in the brain when we process information, involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communication

Mental imagery

visual representations of objects and events, seeing in the mind’s eye

Metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes

Concept

the mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

mental images and typical examples

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Robert Sternberg

identified five components of creativity: expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

Convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

Executive functions

the set of higher-level cognitive processes—managed largely by the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobes—that allow you to plan, organize, monitor, and regulate your thinking and behavior to reach a goal

Algorithm

methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem

Heuristic

problem solving strategies that are a product of experience, allow us to make judgments and solve problems more efficiently, more error prone than algorithms

Insight

involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem, Wolfgang Kohler

Confirmation bias

we have a tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias

Fixation

an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, impeding problem-solving

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular, similar way, especially if it was successful previously

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent or match a particular prototype

Availability heuristic

relying on immediately availability information, examples or knowledge in making a decision; easily retrieved information can skew our perception as we give weight to vivid, distinct, recent events

Overconfidence

our tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments, intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence

Belief perseverance

we cling to our beliefs regardless of the evidence

Framing

decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed

Nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations

General intelligence

a foundational core mental capacity that, according to psychologist Charles Spearman, underlies all specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related test items and groups them into a few underlying latent variables (or factors)

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

Crystalized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, tends to increase with age

Heritability

the portion of variation among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genes

Gene-environment interactions

genes provide a biologically determined predisposition but environment fosters the development of that potent

Early intervention effects

early neglect from caregivers leaders children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence

Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation

need for achievement is linked with view of self and locus of control

External locus of control

give up easily, avoid situations where they might fail

Internal locus of control

feel empowered, motivated and resilient

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory (CHC)

intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc

Existential intelligence

the ability to think about the question of life, death, and existence

Savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional, special skill

Sternberg’s three intelligences

conventional, creative, practical

Practical intelligence

predicts success in life but has a surprisingly low relationship to academic intelligence

Grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals (10-year rule)

Emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions; measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components

Intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores

Achievement test

an assessment designed to measure what a person has already learned, mastered, or accomplished in a specific subject area or course of study

Aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance or capacity to learn a particular skill or subject area, rather than measuring what they have already learned

Eugenics

coined in the 19th century by Sir Francis Galton, proposed the measurement of human traits with the goal of encouraging only “superior” individuals to reproducing

Mental age

a measure of intelligence that compares a student’s performance with others of the same biological age

Lewis Terman

adopted Binet’s test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet test, scored using IQ

Stanford-Binet

an American revision of Alfred Binet’s original intelligence test, adapted by Lewis Terman at Stanford University to measure cognitive abilities and intellectual capacity

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

a numerical score that measures general cognitive ability by comparing an individual's performance on a standardized test to the average performance of others in the same age group

Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test for adults, designed to measure verbal and nonverbal (performance) cognitive abilities

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, traits, and mental processes

Standardization

test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison,

Normal curve

establishes a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern

Flynn effect

intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points

Reliability

a test is reliable when it yields consistent results

Split-half reliability

dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are

Parallel-forms reliability

using different forms of the test to measure the consistency between them

Test-retest reliability

using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency

Validity

what the test is supposed to measure or predict

Content validity

refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior/trait

Construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait

Predictive validity

refers to the functions of a test in predicting

Cross sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

Cohort

a group of people who share a common characteristic, experience, or demographic trait

Growth mindset

the belief that intelligence, abilities, and skills are malleable and can be developed through dedication, hard work, effective strategies, and persistence

Fixed mindset

the belief that intelligence, talents, abilities, and personality traits are static, innate, and unchangeable

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype