Psychology 460

What are the reasons to learn about child development

• Raising children

• Choosing social policies

• Understanding human nature

• Be informed consumers

Raising children

involves understanding child developmental stages to provide appropriate care and support for growth.

• Spanking is not effective as a disciplinary tactitive since it can lead to negative outcomes like increased aggression and behavioral problems in children.

Choosing social policies

Be able to make informed decisions about the many social policy questions that affect and involve children in general

• Should we trust the eye witness testimony of children in child abuse questions

• Do violent video games affect aggression in children

Understanding Human Nature

knowing the shared psychological, biological, and social traits that define what it is to be a human being.

• Why we are the way we are

Be informed consumers

about psychological research and its applications to everyday life, enabling better decision-making.

The scientific method

A way to test our beliefs through the process of choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing a hypothesis, and finally drawing a conclusion.

Scientific inquiry

A systematic approach to exploring questions and acquiring knowledge by testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

• Gathering questions, gathering evidence, and seeking answers

What are the 4 main categories of research methods

1. Observations

2. Questionaaires

3. Interviews

4. Experiments

Observations

1. Naturalistic: Environments where we would usually find children

   1. Play ground, schools, homes

   2. Makes it difficult to know if outcomes would be achieved in lab settings since there are many factors occuring

2. Structured: Lab or researcher designed environment

   1. Allows researchers to be more confident

   2. Hard to know if the action/reaction of the children would occur in their normal environment due to the artificial settings

Questionnaries and Interviews

• Questionaaries: Written questions about specific tops

  • Usually asked to parents and kids

  • Gather information from large group of people

• Interviews: Conducted in real time, rather than via writing

  • Open ended continue to ask about the questions

  • Highly structured questions

  • Retrospective: past

  • Prospective: Current or future

Experiments

• Experimental group: Special treatment or revelant attention

• Control group: Some attention, but not revelant attention

Cross-sectional design

Compares children of different ages on given behavior or characterstics at the same time

• Ex: Bring different age groups of children to lab to test them on building a Lego set

Longitudinal Design

Follows children as they age over a substantial period of time (1 year+), at long intervals (few check-ins)

• Ex: Bring 3, 4, 5 years old every year to test them building a Lego set

Microgenetic designs

Follows children as they age over a substantial period of time (1 year+), at rapid intervals (many check-ins)

• Much greater number of check-ins = more in depth view of process that produces change

Ethics

Children are a special population in research, so high standards apply

• Can’t provide consent and waive the benefits so they rely on parent to make that choice for them

• Society for Research in Child Development ethical cold for investigators

Aristotle and Plato

Early thinkers in child development

• Had curiosity in child development. Because they wanted to learn more about children to benefit society ensuring children were brought up in such a way that it would sustain the long term welfare of society

• Brought nature and nurture into play

Plato

• Nature

• Believed that children were born with knowledge (innate)

Aristotle

• Nurture

• Children didn’t come in the world with knowledge they had to learn about it through experiences and interactions

John Locke

• Nurture

• Proposed that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth, and knowledge is gained through experience and sensory input.

What are the seven themes we will see in the course

1. Nature and nurture

2. The active child

3. Continuity and Discontinuity

4. Mechanisms of change (how change occurs)

5. Sociocultural context

6. Individual Differences

7. Promoting well-being through research

Nature and nurture

The relationship between genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in shaping human development and behavior.

The active child

Understanding children and how THEY shape their own development

• How they choose to interact in their own environment = shape own development

Continuity and Discontinuity

The debate regarding whether development is a gradual and continuous process or a series of distinct stages. Continuous development suggests that skills and traits develop gradually, while discontinuous development proposes that children progress through clearly defined stages.

Mechanisms of change (how change occurs)

Processes that underlie development, including both biological and environmental influences that drive growth and transformation in behavior or skills.

HOW and WHY that change happens.

Sociocultural context

The influence of cultural and social factors on a child's development, highlighting how interactions with their culture and community shape their learning and behavior.

Individual Differences

Variations among individuals in their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which can be influenced by genetic, environmental, and cultural factors.

• 4 major factors: Due to how parents/others treat each sibling, genetic differences, differences in reactions to similar experiences, and different choices of environments

Promoting well-being through research

The application of psychological principles and findings to enhance children and community health, resilience, and overall quality of life.

• Researchers ultimate goal

Meta-analysis

A method that combines results from many studies to find an overall conclusion

Leading question

A question that suggests or pushes a person toward a certain answer.

Why are leading questions a problem for children?

They can cause children to remember events inaccurately.

NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol

A research-based method for interviewing children accurately.

Nativist

Believes some knowledge and abilities are present at birth.

Empiricist

Believes knowledge comes mainly from experience and learning

Romanian Adoption Study

Studied children adopted from deprived Romanian orphanages to understand effects of early experiences.

Main finding of the Romanian Adoption Study

Experiences can have different effects depending on when they occur in a child's life. Earlier intervention usually leads to better outcomes.

Key principle from the Romanian Adoption Study

The timing of experiences influences their effects.

Prefrontal cortex

Part of the brain responsible for planning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Amygdala

Part of the brain involved in emotions and emotional reactions.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed children learn best through freedom and exploration rather than strict instruction.

Age of Reason (Rousseau)

Around age 12, when children can begin judging ideas for themselves.

Evolutionary Theory

The theory that traits develop through variation, natural selection, and inheritance.

Why was Darwin important to child development?

His theory of evolution helped researchers study how development relates to human nature.

• humans developed certain traits because they helped our ancestors survive.

Innate Moral Sens

The idea that some moral abilities are present at birth.

What did Kagan argue?

Children have an innate moral sense that even close primate relatives do not have.

Epigenetics

The study of how experiences and environments can affect gene activity without changing DNA.

Schizophrenia

A serious mental disorder influenced by both genetics and environment.

Crib Speech

When toddlers talk to themselves to practice language.

Fantasy Play

Pretend play that helps children learn about themselves and others.

Stage Theories

The idea that development occurs through distinct stages.

Jean Piaget

Proposed that children move through stages of cognitive development.

Conservation Task

Piaget's test that examines whether children understand that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance.

Effortful Attention

The ability to control thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Cross-Cultural Comparison

Comparing children from different cultures to understand development.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A measure of social class based on income and education.

Cumulative Risk

The buildup of multiple disadvantages that increase developmental challenges.

Resilience

The ability to overcome difficulties and adapt successfully

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about what will happen.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement

Interrater Reliability

Different observers give similar ratings of the same behavior.

Test-Retest Reliability

A test gives similar results when taken again.

Validity

Whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Internal Validity

Whether the results were caused by the factor being studied.

External Validity

Whether findings can be applied to other people and situations.

Replicability

The ability to get the same results when a study is repeated.

Replication Crisis

The discovery that many research findings cannot be repeated successfully.

File-Drawer Problem

Studies with non-significant results are often not published.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

Just because two things are related does not mean one caused the other.

Clinical Interview

a purposeful conversation between a mental health professional and a client used to gather information, understand a problem, make a diagnosis, and plan treatment

Direction-of-Causation Problem

happens when two variables are statistically related, but it is impossible to know whether the first variable causes the second, the second causes the first, or a mix of both

Third-Variable Problem

A different factor may be causing both variables.

Variable

A quantitative or qualitative characteristic that can change or vary, often measured or categorized in research.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance.

Experimental Control

Keeping conditions the same except for the variable being tested.

Independent Variable

The factor the researcher changes.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable; it is expected to change in response to manipulations (outcome)

What are the stages for prenatal development?

1. Germinal stage

2. Embryonic stage

3. Fetal stage

Stages

Separate periods of development

Germinal stage

Begins at conception and ends in attachment to the uterus wall, which occurs at 0-2 weeks. It involves rapid cell division and formation of the blastocyst. (tiny ball of cells)

• The first stage of prenatal development characterized by cell division and implantation.

Embryonic stage

Begins at the attachment of the uterine wall and ends with the formation of bone cells, which occurs during 2-8 weeks of being pregnant.

• Cell differentiation occurs and major organs are formed

• Apotosis (cell death) occurs too, which helps us to form fingers and toes.

• This stage is critical for organogenesis, where vital systems such as the heart, brain, and spinal cord begin to develop.

Fetal Stage

Begins at the formation of bone cells and ends at birth, which occurs 8 - approx. 40 weeks.

• During this stage, rapid growth and maturation of organs and systems occur, alongside continued brain development.

• Fetus grows from 3 inches to around 20 inches

What senses does the fetus experience

The fetus experience all 5 senses before they are born

• Touch, hear, taste, smell, and sight.

Spontaneous abortion (aka miscarriage)

Spontaneous abortion, also known as miscarriage, is the unintentional loss of a pregnancy before the 20th week. It frequently occurs in the early stages and can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic anomalies and exposure to teratogens.

• 1/3 end in miscarriage and 2/3 of this miscarriages women don’t know about it until they realize they’re pregnant.

• 25% of women experience a miscarriage (sometimes even 50%)

• Even if a miscarriage didn’t occur the fetus can experience teratogens

Teratogens

External agents that can cause damage or death during prenatal development.

• There are two types of them: illegal and legal

• Substances and infections that can lead to physical or developmental abnormalities in a fetus.

Legal teratogens

• Alcohol: Drinking during pregnancy can lead to fatal brain injury and later intellectual impairments

• Cigarettes: Smoking during pregnancy deprives the fetus from oxygen

Sensitive periods of development

• They differ per system

• The central nervous system, heart, arms, eyes, legs, and ears are all subject to major structural abnormalities exposed to teratogens during those weeks (first 5 weeks)

  • These early weeks are the times the mother and dad doesn’t even know shes pregnant…so how would she know to not smoke or drink during this time?

• Therefore all pregnancies should be planned

Environmental and maternal factors

• Mom = prenatal environment

• Mom’s emotional state & quality of life = development can be impacted

  • If the mom doesn’t have food and her weight is low the development of the fetus can be incomplete resulting in underdeveloped organs at birth

When does birth typically occurre?

40 weeks gestation

Early term

• 37 weeks through 38 weeks and 6 days

• Lungs, liver, and brain grow

  • Making a large impact in infants’s postnatal life

Childbirthing practices across cultures

Can vary significantly based on cultural beliefs, access to healthcare, and societal norms. These practices influence maternal and infant health outcomes.

• From natural home births to medicalized hospitals births they’re wide ranging

Apgar test

A quick assessment of a newborn's health performed at 1 and 5 minutes after birth, evaluating appearance, pulse, grimace response, activity, and respiration.

• Appearance: gray/blue (lack of oxygen) = 0, pink = 2

• Pulse: No heart rate = 0, less than 100 beats per min = 1, and 100-140 beats per min = 2

• Grimace (response to stimulation such as birth or suctioning of mouth and nose): No response = 0, moderate/low = 1, and a facial grimace like a cough = 2

• Activity: Completely limp = 0, some movement but minimal = 1, lots of movement and flexing of limbs = 2

• Respiration: No breathing = 0, slow breathing = 1, and good strong breathing or crying = 2

Usually administered twice at 2 minutes and then again at 5 mins after birth

• Scores greater than 7 = no medical intervention needed

• Scores 4 or less = medical intervention

Negative outcomes after birth to infants

• Infant mortality

• low birth weight

• multiple births = 55% of twins and 95% of triplets are born with low birth weight

Kangaroo care

Helps infant keep their temperature through skin-to-skin contact with the caregiver due to their low weight.

• crucial for early development of infants

Cumculative risk

Refers to the increased likelihood of negative outcomes due to multiple risk factors, such as low birth weight, environmental hazards, and lack of healthcare access.

• The more risks that an infant endures prenatatlly the lower the chances are of a good outcome

Developmental resilience

Refers to the successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards.

Chromosomes

Thread-like structures made of DNA that carry genetic information, organized in pairs within the nucleus of cells.

Genes

Segments of DNA that code for proteins and influence inherited traits.

Genome

An individual's complete set of DNA and genes that carry all the hereditary information for that organism.