PSYCH UNIT 3/4

Behaviourist appraoches to learning

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

social-cognitive approach to learning

observational learning

Attention (atkinson shiffrin model)

The process required to transfer information from sensory memory to short term memory

what does the 8 ways of Aboriginal learning framework demonstrate?

How ATSI approaches to learning use several different methods,

breaking down a concept into different components

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

unconditioned response

A natural (unlearned/reflex) behaviour to a given stimulus 

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response due to being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

A response caused by the conditioned stimulus

Classical conditioning definition

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it produces a conditioned response.

The Ideal Interval between a neutral and unconditional stimulus in classical conditioning

NS is presented, wait 0.5 seconds, then UCS is presented

Classical conditioning- role of the learner

Passive

• the learner does not need to actively engage and learning occurs through association

Classical conditioning- timing of stimulus

The stimulus occurs ½ second before the response

• stimulus —> response

Classical conditioning- nature of response

Involuntary and automatic (reflexive)

Antecedent

• Also known as ‘discriminative stimulus’.

• Anything in the learner’s environment that triggers a response.

Behaviour

The learner’s voluntary response to the antecedent

Consequence

The event in the learner’s environment that follows the response, making the behaviour more or less likely to be repeated.

• Positive or negative

• Reinforcement or punishment

Reinforcement (observational learning)

• The learner→ positively reinforced with the addition of a positive consequence,

• Increases the likelihood of completing the behaviour again in the future.

Positive reinforcement

• The addition of a desirable consequence

• For example, a child getting a lolly for completing homework

• Increases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Negative reinforcement

• The removal of an unpleasant stimulus 

• For example, a child does not have to do chores for completing homework

• Increases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Punishment

• Punishment is thought of as an undesirable consequence for behaviour.

• Therefore it decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Positive punishment

• The addition of an unwanted stimulus. 

• For example, getting a detention

• decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Negative punishment (response cost)

• The removal of a desirable stimulus.

• For example, a teacher confiscates your phone when you are using it in class

• decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened depending on the consequences that follow it.

Effectiveness of punishment & reinforcement

• Consequence follows response IMMEDIATELY after it occurs

• Reinforcement- provide desirable consequence

• Punishment- provide undesirable consequence

Example response operant conditoning process

• The antecedent is Penny’s phone ringing, prompting her behaviour of taking the call in the hall. The consequence she receives is a chocolate.

• This is positive reinforcement as the addition of the desirable stimulus (chocolate) increases the likelihood of her repeating the behaviour of taking the call outside when her phone rings again.

Similarities between classical and operant conditioning

• Both are Behaviourist models

  • explain learning in 3 phases.

• In both there is an acquisition process where a response is conditioned

• Both are achieved through the

  • repeated association of two events

  • that follow each other closely in time.

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

• consequences

  • operant conditioning= vital for learning

  • Classical Conditioning= no environmental consequences

• Classical conditioning- association of two stimuli- NS & UCS- provides the basis of learning

Why is reinforcement considered a better strategy for modifying behaviour than punishment?

• Punishment does not promote more desirable or appropriate behaviour in its place. 

• Reinforcement strengthens desirable behaviours and promotes the learning of alternative behaviours to replace punishable behaviours

Operant conditioning- role of the learner

Active- the learner actively performs behaviours and learns from consequences.

Operant conditioning- timing of stimulus

The consequence occurs after the behaviour

Operant conditioning- nature of response

Voluntary

What is Observational learning?

A type of learning that occurs through observing the behaviour of a model and the consequences of that behaviour.

• Socio cognitive

5 key processes necessary in observational learning

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Motivation

Reinforcement

ARRMR

Attention (observational model)

• The learner must actively focus on the actions of the model, as well as the consequences of their actions. 

• Not paying attention= unable to retain information required to reproduce the behaviour. 

What influences our likelihood to imitate someone?

• If the model is familiar to the learner

• Similar features to ourselves eg: age, gender

• The model is perceived positively eg: celebrity

• These features make the learner more likely to actively focus on the model

Retention (observational learning)

The learner stores the information they have observed as a mental representation (memory).

Reproduction

The learner needs to have both the mental and physical capabilities required to reproduce the observed behaviour, such as having adequate motor skills

Motivation

The learner must have a desire to imitate the behaviour so that they can receive a positive consequence

Reinforcement

• increases likelihood of learner repeating the behaviour. 

• can occur vicariously= learner is reinforced indirectly through seeing/hearing the consequence of another person’s behaviour.  

Observational learning- role of the learner

Active- the learner must pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviour

Observational learning- timing of stimulus

The learner observes a model before performing the behaviour

• Observation—> imitation

Observational learning-nature of response

Voluntary

Learning as a System of Knowledge (ATSI)

Knowledge and skills being based on an interconnected and spiritual understanding, and in turn inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.

• different types of knowledge are learned together, not separately

• understanding comes from seeing the relationships between ideas

• Holistic in nature

What are concepts connected through in a system of knowledge?

• story

• symbols

• place

• experience

Silly Sausages Play with Eggs

The role of the learner in a system of knowledge

The learner is:

• an active participant within the holistic system

• positioned within relationships, culture and Country

• learning through observation, participation and experience

Gradually become a holder + transmitter of knowledge - learner AND teacher.

What does multimodal learning mean?

(use this for ways of knowing questions)

Learning occurs through a complex and sophisticated system using multiple modes at once, including:

• storytelling

• art

• movement

Example of multimodal learning & how it shows

During storytelling:

• the story is spoken/ sung

• actions are performed

• symbols or body paint may be used

Multimodal learning= knowledge is communicated through multiple forms simultaneously.

Example of 3 of the 8 ways of learning? (ATSI)

• Story-sharing:

  • Learning by listening + sharing stories & songs of past, present and future.

• Learning maps:

  • creating visuals to map pathways or processes

• Non-verbal

  • physical techniques, e.g. dance, gestures, facial expressions

Kinship in Learning

A holistic system of relationships and responsibilities that connects individuals through:

• family

• community

• cultural roles

It determines:

• roles and responsibilities

• how knowledge is shared

• who holds and transmits knowledge

The role of the learner in kinship

• a learner who gains knowledge through observation, participation and experience

• a teacher, who will eventually pass knowledge on

• a custodian of future knowledge, responsible for maintaining and transmitting knowledge across generations

What does learning being patterned on Country mean?

Knowledge is organised and learned through connection to specific places

where the land holds meaning and information

What is Country?

Country refers to a holistic connection to land, environment and spirituality, including:

• land, waterways and sky

• plants and animals

• ancestors and cultural history

Learning being patterned on Country example & how it shows this

Learning is patterned on country due to knowledge being

• embedded in place

• connected to cultural and spiritual meaning

• learned through experience and responsibility

Example- a learner walks through bushland and is taught:

• which plants are safe to eat

• when animals appear

How is learning embedded in relationships?

• knowledge exists through connections between people, Country, culture

• spirituality - relies on a bi-directional relationship of the kinship bond between teacher and learner

Encoding

Conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory

Storage

retention of the encoded information over time

Retrieval

Recovery of stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness for use when needed.

• This occurs when info from long-term memory is brought into short-term memory

3 stores of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model

1. sensory memory

2. short term memory

3. long term memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory diagram

Sensory memory: role

To retain information which has been detected by the senses in its raw sensory form

Sensory memory: Capacity

Vast, potentially unlimited

Sensory memory: duration

0.2 - 4 seconds

Iconic memory + it’s capacity

visual information

capacity: 0.2-0.4 seconds

Echoic memory

auditory information

capacity: 3-4 seconds

How is sensory information transferred to sensory memory and then short term memory?

• Raw information from the environment is detected by the senses and enters the sensory memory store.

• If this information has been attended to, then it is converted into a usable form and transferred to short-term memory for conscious processing

Short-term memory (STM)- function (hint- think of atkinson shiffrin model)

• Receives information from sensory memory

• Transfers information to and from long-term memory.

• Maintains information in conscious awareness for manipulation and use.

Short-term memory (STM)- capacity

7 plus or minus 2 items

7±2

(5-9 items)

Short-term memory (STM)- duration

18 - 30 seconds

How is info from short-term memory transferred to long-term memory?

By being actively rehearsed for encoding into LTM

How is info from long-term memory transferred to short-term memory?

Through the process of retrieval

Long-term memory (LTM)- function

to store information which can be retrieved for future use

Long-term memory (LTM)- capacity

vast, potentially unlimited

Long-term memory (LTM)- duration

relatively permanent 

Explanatory power of Atkinson-Shiffrin: strengths

• Distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory.

• Outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and duration.

• Provides a good understanding of the structure and process of memory.
  

Explanatory power of Atkinson-Shiffrin: weaknesses

• May be considered to be oversimplified.

• It is suggested that short-term memory is more complex and involves different components than the model suggests.

• The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can assist in encoding information from STM to LTM.

Reciprocal (ATSI)

A two-way relationship of giving and receiving information

• Learners both gain knowledge and have a responsibility to:

  • pass it on

  • care for others

  • care for Country

• Explains why ATSI knowledge systems help contribute to a strong identity

Implicit memory

Refers to memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval

Procedural memory

Refers to the long-term implicit memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously

E.g. Swimming, running, cutting up food

Classically conditioned memory

Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning

E.g. anxiety before completing a SAC

Explicit memory

Refers to memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and declared

Semantic memory

Refers to the long-term explicit memory of facts and knowledge about the world.

E.g. 7 days in a week, cells are the building blocks of life, Melbourne is capital of Victoria

Episodic memory

Refers to the long-term explicit memory of personally experienced events

E.g. First day of highschool, trip to tasmania, 16th birthday

Hippocampus + what brain regions it works with

• Primarily involved in the encoding and formation of new explicit memories

• Transfers info to the neocortex to store and retrieve explicit LTM.

• Works w/ amygdala in encoding emotionally arousing memories

• Does not store info

Amygdala

• Involved in the encoding of the emotionally arousing component of explicit and classically conditioned memories (particularly fear responses)

• Can improve the memorability of an event by enhancing the encoding of information by the hippocampus.

• The level of emotional arousal at the time of encoding influences the strength of the LTM formed of that event.

How do the amygdala and hippocampus work together in memory?

1. Amygdala detects an emotionally arousing memory

2. Amygdala signals to the hippocampus that it is meaningful, upregulating it

3. Hippocampus enhances the strength of the memory during encoding, for a stronger, more durable memory trace that can be more efficiently retrieved.

Neocortex

• Stores explicit episodic and semantic memories that have been encoded by the hippocampus

• Memories are stored in the locations of the neocortex that it was first processed (e.g., visual info stored in occipital lobe)

• Also stores very well-learned motor memories.

What happens if the neocortex is damaged?

Damage or surgical removal of the parts of the neocortex is likely to result in the loss

of the memories stored there.

How does the neocortex interact with the hippocampus?

1. The neocortex processes sensory information

2. The hippocampus receives information from the locations of the neocortex and encodes it, forming a whole memory

3. The components of the memory are then stored in the location of the neocortex that first processed it

4. When retrieved, the information is transferred from the neocortex to the hippocampus again

The basal ganglia

• Encodes + stores procedural memories related to motor skills & sequential movements→ through connection w/ cerebellum

• Encodes + stores memories related to reward-based learning→ leads to habit formation

• Supports these behaviours becoming automatic→ through repetition and reinforcement

What happens if the basal ganglia is damaged?

• Difficulty learning new motor skills and habits

• Previously learned skills may become harder to perform automatically

The cerebellum (part 1-basic understanding)

• Stores long-term implicit procedural memories.

• critical in classical conditioning

  • encodes,

  • stores &

  • precisely times

  • learned associations b/w a conditioned stimulus & motor response.

The cerebellum (part 2- extra info)

• Helps to coordinate and fine-tune fine muscular movements necessary for procedural memories via its connection with the basal ganglia

• Best known for its involvement in activities requiring a skilled sequence of movements

What happens if the cerebellum is damaged?

• Difficulty learning a reflex response via classical conditioning

• Learned skills may still exist but are performed poorly and less smoothly

• doesn’t affect explicit memories of experiences during CC

How do the basal ganglia and cerebellum work together in procedural memory and

habit formation?

● note- they are not distinct

1. The basal ganglia encodes and automates the skill

2. The cerebellum refines that memory, adjusting errors and improving

performance

3. Over time, the procedural memory becomes automatic (basal ganglia) and

accurate and well-timed (cerebellum)

Role of the neocortex in procedural memory and habit formation? ( relates to Basal ganglia and cerebellum)

• The neocortex is involved in the initial conscious processing and thinking of the explicit details of the skill when learning.

• Basal ganglia and cerebellum take over after repetition to allow automation and coordination.

Habit formation

• responding emotionally to a stimulus

• e.g. difficulty→ nail biting

• encoded and stored by basal ganglia

What are the five brain regions involved in LTM memory?

1. Hippocampus

2. Amygdala

3. Neocortex

4. Basal ganglia

5. Cerebellum

What happens if the hippocampus is damaged?

• Difficulty forming new explicit long-term memories and their transfer to the neocortex for storage

• Does not seem to affect the formation, storage or retrieval of procedural memories

(as they do not require the hippocampus)

• Does not affect STM, but consolidation of memories into LTM is compromised

What happens if the amygdala is damaged?

• Problems with the formation of emotional memories and details

• Acquisition of conditioned fear responses may be hindered.