unit 2 good

Rosenthal and Jacobson's Pygmalion in the Classroom

A study showing that teachers' expectations can influence student performance. Students expected to improve showed greater intellectual gains, demonstrating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When expectations about someone cause behaviors that make those expectations come true.

Entity theory of intelligence (fixed mindset)

The belief that intelligence is fixed and cannot substantially change.

Incremental theory of intelligence (growth mindset)

The belief that intelligence can improve through effort, learning, and practice.

Response to failure: Entity theory

See failure as proof of low ability and may avoid future challenges.

Response to failure: Incremental theory

See failure as an opportunity to learn and improve.

Response to success: Entity theory

See success as proof of natural ability and may avoid challenging tasks.

Response to success: Incremental theory

See success as evidence that effort and learning lead to improvement.

Stereotype threat interventions

Strategies that reduce anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes, such as values affirmation and growth mindset interventions.

Values affirmation intervention

Reflecting on personal values to reduce stereotype-related stress and improve performance.

Growth mindset intervention

Teaching students that intelligence can develop through effort and learning.

Social belonging intervention (Walton and Cohen)

Reassuring students that belonging uncertainty is normal and temporary, improving academic performance and well-being.

Walton and Cohen's research

Studied belonging uncertainty, particularly among racial minority students. Reframing social uncertainty as normal improved academic performance and well-being.

Belonging uncertainty

Feeling unsure whether you fit in or belong in a social or academic environment.

Stephens and Fryberg's research

Found that cultural differences between independent university values and interdependent first-generation student values can create stress.

Cultural mismatch

Conflict between an individual's cultural values and the values emphasized by an institution.

Independent cultural approach to education

Emphasizes independence, personal achievement, individual goals, and self-expression.

Interdependent cultural approach to education

Emphasizes relationships, community, cooperation, and responsibilities to others.

Miguel Sabido's educational entertainment

Used television programs to model positive behaviors and teach social lessons.

Social learning principles in entertainment

People learn by observing others and the consequences of their behaviors.

Population effects of Sabido's work

His programs were associated with increased literacy, contraceptive use, and family planning.

Skills promoted by psychology and social sciences

Critical thinking, empathy, communication, perspective-taking, and evaluating evidence.

Social self

The part of identity shaped by social interactions, relationships, and group memberships.

Situationism

The idea that behavior is strongly influenced by the situation and social context.

Working self-concept

The part of the self-concept currently active in a particular situation.

What influences the working self-concept?

Situational cues, social interactions, current goals, and relevant identities.

What promotes stability in our sense of self?

Consistent experiences, relationships, social roles, memories, and self-beliefs.

Self-knowledge

Information and beliefs about one's own characteristics, abilities, and identity.

Self-knowledge: Self versus close others

We best judge our internal thoughts and feelings; close others often better judge our observable behaviors.

Self-schema

Mental structure containing beliefs about an important aspect of one's identity.

Schematic person

Someone for whom a particular trait is important to their identity; they process related information more easily.

Aschematic person

Someone for whom a particular trait is not important to their identity.

Independent self-construal

Defining oneself through personal traits, abilities, preferences, and goals.

Interdependent self-construal

Defining oneself through relationships, social roles, and group memberships.

Who Am I? exercise

An exercise measuring self-concept. Independent people emphasize personal traits; interdependent people emphasize relationships and groups.

Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

A brain region involved in processing information about oneself and self-referential thinking.

Cultural differences in the self

Independent cultures emphasize individual identity; interdependent cultures emphasize relationships and group membership.

Variations within populations

Gender, social class, family background, and experiences influence independence and interdependence.

Self-esteem

A person's overall evaluation of their own worth or value.

Gender differences in interdependent self-construals

Women tend to emphasize relational interdependence; men tend to emphasize collective interdependence.

Relational interdependence

Defining oneself through close personal relationships.

Collective interdependence

Defining oneself through membership in larger social groups.

Contingencies of self-worth theory

Self-esteem depends on success in personally important areas, such as academics, appearance, or relationships.

Sociometer hypothesis

Self-esteem acts as a gauge of social acceptance and rejection.

Difference between contingencies of self-worth and sociometer hypothesis

Contingencies focus on important areas of personal worth; sociometer focuses on social acceptance.

Self-enhancement strategies

Strategies used to maintain or improve positive feelings about oneself.

Self-verification strategies

Seeking information that confirms one's existing self-concept.

Self-enhancement versus self-verification

Self-enhancement influences feelings about ourselves; self-verification influences thoughts and beliefs about ourselves.

Does self-enhancement improve well-being?

It can improve happiness and confidence, but unrealistic self-enhancement can interfere with relationships and learning.

Self-discrepancy theory

The theory that differences between the actual, ideal, and ought selves produce negative emotions.

Actual self

Who someone believes they currently are.

Ideal self

Who someone would like to become; their hopes and aspirations.

Ought self

Who someone believes they should be based on duties and responsibilities.

Actual-ideal discrepancy

The gap between who you are and who you want to be; can cause disappointment and sadness.

Actual-ought discrepancy

The gap between who you are and who you believe you should be; can cause guilt and anxiety.

Promotion focus

Focuses on achieving positive outcomes and pursuing hopes and ideals.

Prevention focus

Focuses on avoiding negative outcomes and fulfilling responsibilities.

Self-discrepancy and independent cultures

Independent cultures emphasize personal goals, making actual-ideal discrepancies especially relevant.

Self-discrepancy and interdependent cultures

Interdependent cultures emphasize social obligations, making actual-ought discrepancies especially relevant.

Construal strategies

Ways people interpret themselves and situations to regulate behavior.

Self-regulation

Monitoring and controlling thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to reach goals.

Self-handicapping

Creating or claiming obstacles to protect self-esteem if failure occurs.

Behavioral self-handicapping

Actually creating obstacles to performance, such as procrastinating or not studying.

Claimed self-handicapping

Claiming an obstacle, such as illness or exhaustion, to excuse possible failure.

Online versus offline self-presentation

People have more control over their online image but often pursue similar identity and social goals offline.

Socialization agents

People and institutions that teach social norms and behaviors, such as parents, peers, teachers, and media.

Reflected self-appraisals

Beliefs about how other people see and evaluate us.

Self-stereotyping

Applying stereotypes about a group to oneself because of group membership.

Self-presentation

Controlling the impressions other people form about us.

Face

The positive social image a person wants to maintain in front of others.

Social cognition

How people perceive, interpret, remember, and use social information.

Snap judgments

Quick evaluations of people that can predict behavior but may also be inaccurate or biased.

Consequences of snap judgments

They influence how we treat others and can create self-fulfilling prophecies.

Counterfactual thinking

Imagining alternative outcomes or what could have happened differently.

Upward counterfactual thinking

Imagining how an outcome could have been better; often produces regret but can motivate improvement.

Downward counterfactual thinking

Imagining how an outcome could have been worse; often produces relief or gratitude.

Counterfactual thinking and emotion

Imagining better outcomes can cause regret; imagining worse outcomes can cause relief.

Alternative explanations

Considering other possible causes of an event, which can reduce confidence in one explanation.

Actor-observer difference

The tendency to explain our own behavior through situations but others' behavior through personality.

Actor explanation

Explaining our own behavior using external circumstances.

Observer explanation

Explaining another person's behavior using internal traits or personality.

Self-serving attributional bias

Attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors.

Attributions for success and failure

People often credit themselves for success but blame circumstances for failure.

Gender socialization and attribution

Gender socialization can influence explanations of success and failure; women may credit luck while men may credit ability, according to some research.

Framing effect

The way information is presented influences judgments and decisions.

Primacy effect

First information has the strongest influence on impressions.

Recency effect

Most recently presented information has the strongest influence on impressions.

Order effects

The order of information influences judgments; includes primacy and recency effects.

Spin framing

Presenting information to emphasize a particular interpretation or perspective.

Positive-negative framing

Equivalent information produces different responses depending on whether it is presented positively or negatively.

Construal level theory

Psychological distance determines how abstractly or concretely people think about something.

Psychological distance

Perceived distance from an event in time, space, social connection, or likelihood.

Psychologically distant events

Events far away are generally understood abstractly, focusing on the overall meaning.

Psychologically close events

Events nearby are generally understood concretely, focusing on details and actions.

Confirmation bias

Seeking and remembering information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Information neglected through confirmation bias

Contradictory evidence, alternative explanations, and information that challenges existing beliefs.

Factors that encourage confirmation bias

Strong beliefs, motivated reasoning, selective information, and overconfidence.

Overconfidence

Being more confident in one's knowledge or judgments than the evidence justifies.

Schemas

Organized mental structures containing knowledge and expectations about people and situations.

How schemas influence behavior

Schemas influence what we notice, remember, and how we interpret and respond to situations.