euthanasia

Five ethical theories on the value of life in OCR Ethics

1. Sanctity of life

2. Quality of life

3. Autonomy

4. Situation ethics

5. Natural law

Four main classifications/types of euthanasia

1. Voluntary

2. Non-voluntary

3. Active

4. Passive

Core claim of the Strong Sanctity of Life principle

The belief that all human life is created by God, sacred, and possesses intrinsic value, meaning only God has the moral right to end it under any circumstance.

Genesis 9:6 justification for the Sanctity of Life

"Whoever sheds human blood, by humans shall their blood be shed; for in the image of God has God made mankind." It establishes that taking life warrants the ultimate penalty because humans are created in God's image.

1 Corinthians 6:19 justification for the Sanctity of Life

"Your body is a temple of the holy spirit… You do not belong to yourself." Denies self-ownership and asserts that destroying the body is like destroying a sacred temple given as a gift from God.

Commandment prohibiting the taking of human life in the Old Testament

The sixth commandment: "Thou shalt not murder."

Core claim of the Weak Sanctity of Life principle

The belief that while human life is sacred, sanctity is one of several biblical principles (such as Jesus' emphasis on compassion) that must be weighed together in extreme situations.

Primary criticism of Strong Sanctity of Life made by Weak Sanctity proponents

It causes unnecessary suffering and lacks compassion by prioritizing the preservation of biological life at all costs.

Strong Sanctity of Life counter-argument against using compassion to justify euthanasia

Compassion cannot overrule absolute divine commands; biblical prohibitions against killing contain no exceptions, and true compassion operates within God's laws.

Tony Bland case study significance in the Sanctity of Life debate

Left in a persistent vegetative state (PVS), courts allowed life support (nutrition/hydration) to be withdrawn, illustrating that artificially preserving biological life with no recovery potential can be seen as outdated and uncompassionate.

DNR (Do Not Resuscitate) orders in relation to Weak Sanctity of Life

Demonstrates that refusing resuscitation does not reject the sanctity of life, but recognizes that prolonging the dying process unnecessarily is not morally required.

Definition of Quality of Life in ethics

An approach holding that life's value depends on the balance of happiness over suffering and the possession of a certain standard of well-being to be worth living.

Intellectual origins of the Quality of Life framework

Emerged from the Enlightenment's rejection of religious authority, re-centering moral value around human flourishing, preference satisfaction, and Utilitarianism.

Peter Singer's critique of the origin of the Sanctity of Life view

He argues it stems from outdated 'Christian domination of European thought', specifically assumptions about divine ownership and an afterlife, which should be re-evaluated in modern secular society.

Peter Singer's explanation of why killing is wrong

Killing is wrong because it deprives a person of the future life and preferences they consciously desire to continue living.

Application of Peter Singer's Quality of Life theory to voluntary euthanasia

If a competent adult explicitly desires to die due to low quality of life, euthanasia is not wrong because it does not violate a preference to continue living.

Application of Peter Singer's Quality of Life theory to non-voluntary euthanasia

For infants with severe incurable conditions or PVS patients who lack self-consciousness, killing does not violate a preference to live; thus, non-voluntary euthanasia can be justified to prevent unnecessary suffering.

Peter Singer's criteria for personhood

Rationality and self-consciousness.

Distinction between 'humans' and 'persons' in Peter Singer's philosophy

'Humans' are biological members of the Homo sapiens species, whereas 'persons' are beings possessing rationality and self-consciousness. Not all humans (e.g., severe PVS patients, fetuses, newborns) are persons.

Archbishop Anthony Fisher's slippery slope argument against euthanasia

Legalizing euthanasia for terminal cases logically and historically leads to its extension to broader, more controversial groups (e.g., incurable illness, mental illness, non-voluntary cases).

Archbishop Anthony Fisher's concern regarding vulnerable individuals

In a culture valuing success and self-sufficiency, elderly or disabled people may feel pressured or encouraged to choose euthanasia because they view themselves as a burden.

2022 Canadian controversy regarding euthanasia

Two high-profile cases involved individuals with medical conditions applying for euthanasia due to severe poverty and a lack of financial/social support ('Denise').

Pope Francis' critique of Canada's euthanasia legislation

Described it as part of a 'tragic culture' that treats elderly and disabled people as disposable, giving patients death instead of affection and support.

Peter Singer's empirical evidence against the slippery slope in Oregon

Euthanasia recipients are disproportionately white, educated, and not especially elderly, accounting for only 1 in 3,000 deaths, showing no evidence of targeting vulnerable groups or uncontrolled creep.

Impact of genetic screening on post-birth non-voluntary euthanasia statistics

Pre-natal screening reduced post-birth non-voluntary euthanasia cases (e.g., in Oregon data from 15 in 2005 to 2 in 2010), demonstrating that legal euthanasia does not automatically increase.

Refutation of using Nazism as a slippery slope argument against euthanasia

The Nazi euthanasia program started from racial purity and dehumanization, not compassionate voluntary choice; the slippery slope is avoided when starting from autonomy and compassion.

Definition of autonomy in moral philosophy

The freedom and capacity of individuals to make their own choices and govern their own lives.

Robert Nozick's libertarian principle of self-ownership

Individuals possess absolute property rights over their own lives and bodies, giving them the right to do whatever they wish provided they do not harm others.

Application of Nozick's deontological autonomy to euthanasia

If an individual chooses to end their life and receives assistance, voluntary euthanasia is morally acceptable regardless of the reason.

Major ethical limitation of Nozick's absolute autonomy view

It permits individuals to choose euthanasia for short-sighted or temporary emotional reasons, such as during a temporary crisis or depressive state.

Consequentialist/Utilitarian approach to autonomy (Singer & Mill)

Autonomy is valuable because individuals usually know what is best for themselves, but it must be balanced against outcomes to ensure decisions reflect true long-term interests.

Peter Singer's example of a temporary lapse in rational autonomy

A love-sick teenager seeking euthanasia due to depression over a relationship break-up; denying euthanasia is justified because they will predictably come to value life again.

J.S. Mill's contribution to political liberalism and autonomy

Argued that granting individual freedom leads to greater overall happiness because individuals are best positioned and motivated to judge their own good.

Archbishop Anthony Fisher's critique of consequentialist autonomy

Claims it is logically inconsistent to restrict autonomy conditionally; once the freedom to die is recognized, it inevitably slips into absolute autonomy for any reason.

Method for maintaining consequentialist autonomy without slipping into absolute autonomy

Combining autonomy with a requirement for rationality; short-sighted choices driven by temporary emotional distress are irrational and thus denied.

Concept of 'ideal desires' in defining moral autonomy

Desires a person would hold under full rational deliberation and knowledge, free from overwhelming emotion or temporary irrationality.

Joseph Fletcher's view on biblical rules in Situation Ethics

The Bible is not a legalistic rulebook but a collection of suggestions/paradigms; ethics must be guided by the overarching principle of agape (selfless love).

Application of Situation Ethics to euthanasia decisions

Euthanasia is morally good in situations where it maximizes agape (love), and morally wrong when it fails to maximize agape.

Example of when Situation Ethics would permit euthanasia

When a patient has a terminal condition, severe suffering, low quality of life, and a rational, autonomous desire to end their life.

Example of when Situation Ethics would reject euthanasia

When a patient is pressured by relatives seeking inheritance, influenced by societal burdens, or acting on short-term emotional distress.

William Barclay's criticism of Situation Ethics applied to euthanasia

Human nature is easily corrupted by power and self-interest; without strict legalistic rules, people will make selfish decisions (e.g., pressuring relatives for financial gain).

Concept of humanity having 'come of age' (J.A.T. Robinson / Bonhoeffer)

The belief that modern society is educated and mature enough to apply moral principles like agape flexibly, without needing rigid medieval rules.

Psychological/Literary evidence against the 'humanity come of age' argument

The Stanford Prison Experiment and Golding's Lord of the Flies demonstrate that taking away legalistic rules leads to moral decay and the corruption of human behavior.

Defence of Situation Ethics against the subjectivity of love

Agape is selfless love ('loving your neighbor as yourself'); pressuring someone into euthanasia for selfish gain directly violates agape.

Primary Precepts of Natural Law violated by euthanasia

1. Preservation of life
2. Maintenance of an orderly society

Natural Law explanation of why legalizing euthanasia causes societal harm

Violating God's natural order corrupts moral human nature, lowers the value placed on life, and leads to social breakdown and disharmony.

Mother Teresa's perspective on human control over life and death

Humans are unworthy of deciding who lives or dies; undermining the sacredness of life endangers global peace and order.

Catholic Church position on active vs passive euthanasia

Direct (active) euthanasia is always morally unacceptable. Passive euthanasia (withdrawing extraordinary/burdensome treatment) can be morally permissible.

Application of the Doctrine of Double Effect to end-of-life pain relief

High doses of painkillers that shorten life are permissible if the intention is solely to relieve pain, and death is merely an unintended, foreseen side-effect.

Catechism of the Catholic Church stance on extraordinary medical procedures

Discontinuing burdensome, dangerous, extraordinary, or disproportionate medical procedures is legitimate because it accepts the inability to impede death rather than willing it.

Peter Singer's critique of the Catholic stance on passive euthanasia

Points out that the Church permits passive euthanasia for comatose patients (e.g., Karen Ann Quinlan) who cannot feel burden, proving the Church implicitly relies on Quality of Life arguments.

Socio-economic critique of Natural Law's stance on preserving life

Natural Law's absolute rules against killing reflected medieval conditions with high violence rates and poor education; modern medical technology and lower crime render strict prohibitions outdated.

Defense of Natural Law against the 'outdated' socio-economic critique

Moral truth from God does not change with cultural shifts; popular rejection of Natural Law reflects societal error rather than flawed ethical principles.

Active euthanasia definition

When death is caused by a direct medical intervention, such as administering a lethal injection.

Passive euthanasia definition

When life-sustaining treatment, food, or medical intervention is withheld or withdrawn, allowing death to occur naturally.

Voluntary euthanasia definition

Euthanasia performed at the explicit, mentally competent request of the patient.

Non-voluntary euthanasia definition

Euthanasia performed when a patient lacks the mental capacity to give consent (e.g., infants, comatose, or PVS patients).

Alfie Evans case study significance

A child whose parents wished to continue treatment, but the High Court ruled treatment should end as it was futile and painful; highlights the conflict between parental rights and the child's best interests.

Locked-in syndrome in the context of euthanasia

An incurable physical condition causing near-total paralysis, rendering a patient unable to carry out suicide without assistance, raising key questions about physical autonomy.