AP Psychology Test Unit 1

Acetylcholine

Muscle movement and coordination

Endorphins

Pain relief during physical exertion, exercise, etc

Norepinephrine

Physical arousal, including during emergency situations (adrenaline is a common synonym)

Dopamine

Positive feelings of joy, pleasure, etc.

Serotonin

Undersupply linked to depression

Limbic system

Hippocampus, , hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala

Cerebrum/ Cerebral cortex

Frontal lobe, prefrontal cortex, Broca’s area (left lobe only), motor cortex, parietal lobes, somatosensory cortex, occipital lobes, visual cortex, temporal lobes, Wernicke’s Area, auditory cortex

Brainstem, Thalamus, and Cerebellum

Thalamus, reticular formation, pons, medulla (oblongata), cerebellum, spinal cord

Phrenology

The study of bumps on the skull

The “scientist” that is most closely associated with phrenology:

German physician Franz Gall

Positive purpose of phrenology

Succeeded in emphasizing the localization of function, which is the idea that different regions of the brain have different specific functions.

Biological psychologist

Uses advanced technology and studies the links between the biological and psychological processes (genetic, neural, and hormonal.)

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Neuroplasticity

The ability of your brain to change through reorganizing following damage, or building new pathways with new experiences.

Lesion

Tissue destruction, it can happen naturally from disease or trauma, or can happen during surgery, or experimentally by using electrodes in order to destroy brain cells.

EEG

Electroencephalogram

electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG

Magnetoencephalography

Magnetoencephalography

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

CT (CAT scan)

Computed tomography scan

Computed tomography scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET

Positron emission tomography

Positron emission tomography

(A technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.)

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging brain scans

Magnetic resonance imaging brain scans

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.)

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

Hindbrain

Contains brainstem structures directing the essential functions for survival (breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, and balance)

Midbrain

On top the brainstem, connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some movements and transmits information that enables seeing and hearing

Forebrain

Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

Brainstem

The brain’s innermost region, its base is the medulla which is the swell in the spinal cord (controls for heartbeat + breathing)

reward deficiency syndrome

Related to dopamine because people with this syndrome crave dopamine

Reuptake

Process through which a neuron “takes back” excess neurotransmitters which the receiving neuron does not need

Refractory period

A brief rest occurring after a neuron fires, action potentials can only occur after the axon returns to resting state

All-or-none response

A neuron’s reaction is either firing full-strength or not firing at all

Threshold

Level of stimulation that is needed to trigger a neural response

Action potential

Message sent by neuron by firing an impulse, brief electrical charge that travels down its axon

During resting potential

Neuron is at rest and polarized, negative ions go inside the axon while positive ions go outside

During action potential

Neuron is depolarized, positive ions go inside, negative ions go outside

Myelin sheath

Fatty layer protecting axon

nervous system consists of:

Central Nervous System & Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System consists of

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System consists of

Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System consists of

Sympathetic Nervous System & Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system

Helps to control our glands and organ muscles inside our bodies (peripheral nervous system)

Somatic nervous system

Responsible for enabling our body’s voluntary system (Peripheral nervous system)

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arousal in its broadest sense, expands energy (fight or flight), it can raise your heartbeat, blood pressure, cools you with sweat, slows down your digestion, making you alert (Autonomic nervous system)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms us down after the emergency, effects are different, converges energy to rest and digest (Autonomic nervous system)

Sensory neurons

Afferent - Neurons that carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord for processing

Motor neurons

Efferent - Neurons that carry instructions from the CNS to the body’s muscles and glands

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that communicate. They cross the synaptic gap between neurons, and when the sending neuron releases them, they travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites that are on the receiving neuron.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that alter the brain and cause changes in perceptions and moods

Substance use disorder

When people continue to use substances that disrupt their lives

Tolerance

When the effects diminish with continuous use of the same dose of a drug, which causes the user of the drug to take more and more in order to experience an effect

addiction

The compulsive use of a substance and the continuous use despite harmful consequences

Withdrawal

The feelings of discomfort and distress that occur when the discontinuing use of addictive drugs or behaviors

Depressant

Drugs that calm neural activity and slow down body functions

Types of depressants

Alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opioids

How is alcohol a disinhibitor?

It slows down brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions

Opiates

Cause pleasure to take the place of pain and anxiety, gives a lethargic effect to people. Heroin and methadone are opiates.

Stimulant

Excites neural activity and makes body functions speed up, causing pupils to dilate, heart rate and breathing rate to increase, and blood sugar to rise, reduces appetite.

Examples of stimulants

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine (speed), Ecstasy

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Threshold (in relation to excitatory and inhibitory signals)

When the excitatory exceed the inhibitory signals, which is the level of stimulation that triggers a neural impulse or action potential.

(The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse)

Agonists

Molecules that increase production or release of neurotransmitters, or block synaptic reuptake. Some agonist molecules are similar to neurotransmitters and can bind to its receptor to mimic the excitatory or inhibitory effects.

Antagonist molecules

Decrease the action of neurotransmitters because it blocks production or release.

Endocrine system

interconnected to the nervous system and is a second system of communication. The glands and fat tissues of the endocrine system secrete a different form of chemical messengers called hormones which affect the brain and other tissues.

Adrenal glands

Release epinephrine and norepinephrine, also called adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones have the function of increasing heart rate, blood pressure and sugar, and provides energy for fight-or-flight response in moments of danger.

Pituitary gland

Most influential endocrine gland, pea-sized and located in the core of the brain. It is controlled by the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland releases a growth hormone for physical development, and also releases oxytocin.

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the pituitary gland that enables orgasm and for women enables labor contractions and milk for nursing.

Glial cells

In the nervous system and support, provide nutrients, and protect neurons.

medulla oblongata

Above spinal cord, below pons, controls for heartbeat and breathing (brainstem, thalamus, and cerebellum)

Pons

Above medulla, below midbrain/reticular formation, mashmallow. Helps coordinate movements and controls sleep (brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum)

Thalamus

Center, inside hippocampus’ horse track, sits atop the brainstem, pair of egg-shaped structures, above midbrain. Acts as the brain’s sensory control center, receives information from all the senses EXCEPT SMELL, routes that info to other brain regions, also receives some replies from those other regions, can direct info to medulla and cerebellum (brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum)

Reticular formation

Inside the brainstem between ears. Controls arousal (alertness), some sensory input from the spinal cord goes through the reticular formation (brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum)

Cerebellum

Extending from the rear of the brainstem (hindbrain), baseball-sized “little brain)”, two wrinkled halves. Carries out decisions head makes, physical/voluntary decisions, processes sensory input, coordinate movements output and balance, enabling nonverbal learning and memory (brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum)

Amygdala

Underneath pituitary gland?. enables aggression and fear, if damaged people exhibit reduced arousal to fear and anger arousing stimuli, center of “negative caveman emotions”, anger + fear, “flight-or-fight” (limbic system)

Hypothalamus

(Includes pituitary gland), round thing between amygdala. Some clusters enable hunger, some enable thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, all help to maintain homeostatic internal state. (Limbic system)

Hippocampus

Looks like bracelet. Processes conscious memories, responsible for deciding which of the memories are important to keep long term (Limbic system)

Frontal lobes

Include motor cortex and prefrontal cortex, and on left lobe only, Broca’s area which is responsible for speech production and language processing. Front of the brain/just behind forehead, part of cerebral cortex. Enables linguistic processing, muscle movement, higher order thinking, executive functions, what makes us human!

Parietal lobes

Includes somatosensory cortex. Top of brain, part of cerebral cortex. Reviews sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

Includes visual cortex. Back of brain. Contains visual cortex which receives visual information.

Temporal lobes

Includes auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area. Roughly above ears, association in area which incoming speech is processes - easy to damage (peanuts). Includes auditory ideas that receives information primarily from opposite ear, enable language processing.

Lateralization

The fact that the left and right hemispheres of the brain serve different sets of functions

Corpus callosum

Thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain

Split-brain

When a person’s corpus callosum is severed so communication between hemispheres can’t happen

Eye’s sensory information from left field of vision goes to

Right hemisphere,

Eye’s sensory information from the right field of vision goes to

Left hemisphere, controls speech

Wernicke’s area

Region of brain in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere usually, responsible for language comprehension and processing of spoken and written words

Broca’s area

Region in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere responsible for speech production and language processing

neural networks

Groups of neurons that work together

Reflexes

Autonomic responses that the spinal cord is responsible for