Exam #1 (Lecture Material)

[CH 1] What ship did James Cook command? On what ship was Darwin the naturalist on?

1. James Cook commanded the HMS Endeavor

2. Darwin was the naturalist on the HMS Beagle

[CH 1] What’s the significance of the Wilkes Expedition (U.S. Exploring Expedition) and the Challenger Expedition?

1. The Wilkes Expedition was the 1st international survey sponsored by the US government

2. The Challenger Expedition was the first major exploration for studying marine organisms; 50 vol of info from the trip’s data was published over the next 19 years

[CH 1] Where are some of the top marine laboratories in the U.S. found?

Some of the top marine labs in the US are found in Massachusetts, California, and Washington

[CH 1] What are SONAR and SCUBA (i.e. what do their names refer to?)

1. SONAR= sound navigation and ranging; detects underwater echoes

2. SCUBA= self-contained underwater breathing apparatus 

[CH 1] What are the different steps of the scientific method? What is a hypothesis? What is an experiment?

1. steps of scientific method:

   1. observe phenomenon 

   2. develop hypotheses(testable explanation of observed phenomenon)

   3. create test of hypothesis(experimentation)

   4. carry out test and analyze results

   5. develop another hypothesis if necessary

[CH 1] Why can’t you prove a hypothesis?

1. You can’t prove a hypothesis because there may be an exception; you can only disprove a hypothesis based on evidence  

[CH 1] What’s an experimental group? What’s a control group? What’s a variable?

1. An experimental group is a group w/a single variable characteristic to be tested against a control group in an experiment

2. A control group is a group identical to experimental group, except for the variable that is being tested

3. A variable is a single characteristic in a set of individuals that differs from the control group in an experiment 

[CH 1] What’s a theory?

1. A scientific theory is a hypothesis that has been tested many times and hasn’t been found incorrect yet

[CH 2] Which ocean is largest and deepest?

1. Pacific Ocean

[CH 2] What percentage of the earth’s surface is the ocean? Which hemisphere is more dominated by the ocean?

1. 71% of the earth’s surface is ocean

2. the southern hemisphere is more dominated by ocean 

[CH 2] What are the different layers of the Earth? What properties does each layer have?

1. core= innermost layer; solid inner core and liquid outer core, iron rich 

2. mantle= middle layer; semi-plastic composition

3. crust= outermost layer; thinnest portion of earth

[CH 2] What’s the difference between oceanic crust and continental crust? Which one is denser? Which one is younger?

1. oceanic crust is made up of basalt and continental crust is made up of granite

2. oceanic crust is denser and younger 

[CH 2] What is continental drift? What is Pangaea?

1. continental drift is hypothesis that the continents move(not widely accepted)

2. pangea- all continents were once part of a supercontinent that drifted apart

[CH 2] What is the theory of plate tectonics? Where is new crust made? Where do plates come together? What are transform boundaries?

1. plate tectonics- earth’s surface is covered by a series of crustal plates

2. new crust is made at ridges?

3. plates come together at trenches

4. transform boundaries- where plates slide past each other

   1. no creation/destruction of crust

[CH 2] What is seafloor spreading? Where does it occur?

1. seafloor spreading- mechanism of continental drift, occurs at ridges 

[CH 2] What are subduction zones? Where do they occur?

1. subduction zones are where oceanic crust goes under continental crust and they occur at trenches and produce volcanoes

[CH 2] What are faults? What are shear boundaries?

1. faults are cracks in the crust

2.  shear boundaries are plate boundaries where plates slides past each other(they shear each other as they move)

[CH 2] Which ocean is getting smaller? Which one is getting bigger?

1. pacific ocean is getting smaller, atlantic ocean is getting bigger 

[CH 2] What evidence is there for plate tectonic theory?

?  location of earthquakes and volcanoes, sea-floor rock at ridges very young, very little to no sediment at ridges, magnetic anomalies 

[CH 2] What is the lithosphere? What is the asthenosphere?

1. lithosphere is crust and upper mantle, asthenosphere is liquid 

[CH 2] Why doesn’t the earth get bigger?

seafloor spreading rates= subduction rates

• crust is being destroyed at subduction zones at exact same rate it is being created at mid-ocean ridges

[CH 2] What are lithogenous and biogenous sediments?

1. Lithogenous sediments- derived from break-down of rocks(weathering)

2. biogenous sediments- derived from skeletons and shells of marine organisms 

[CH 2] What are continental margins? What are the components of the continental margins and where are they located?

1. continental margins are boundaries b/n the continental crust and oceanic crust

2. continental shelf(most landward), continental slope, continental rise(most seaward)

[CH 2] What are the properties of the continental shelf? What percentage of the ocean is it?

1. 8% of ocean’s surface area, biologically richest area of ocean, shelf ends at shelf break at a depth of 400-1300 ft

[CH 2] What are the properties of the continental slope?

1. edge of a continent, begins at shelf break and continues to deep sea floor, much steeper than continental shelf and continental rise(3000-5000m)

[CH 2] What’s the continental rise?

1. formed by sediments from continental shelf and slope

[CH 2] What are the different types of continental margins, what are their properties, and where are they found?

1. passive margins: geologically relatively inactive, flat wide coastal plains, wide continental shelves, gradually sloping continental slopes, east coast of US

2. active margins: intense geologic activity(earthquakes, volcanoes, and trenches), steep rocky shorelines, narrow continental shelves, and steep continental slopes, west coast of US

[CH 2] What are the properties of the deep-sea floor? What are submarine channels, abyssal hills, seamounts, and guyots?

1. 3000-5000 m, abyssal plain, flat, has submarine channels, abyssal hills, seamounts, guyots(flat-top seamounts)

[CH 2] Where are hydrothermal vents found?

1. found in deep-sea hot springs

[CH 3] What are some properties of water?

1. polar covalent molecule; hydrogen bond b/n oxygen(partial -ve charge) and hydrogen(partial +ve charge)

2. only substance that naturally occurs on earth in all 3 states of matter(s,l,g)

[CH 3] What’s a hydrogen bond? What kind of bond holds one water molecule together? What kind of bond holds multiple water molecules together?

1. hydrogen bond is a weak attraction b/n an atom and a H atom taking part in a separate polar covalent bond

2. hydrogen bond holds water together

[CH 3] What is a solvent? A solute?

1. solvent is what the solute dissolves in(ex. salt is solute in water(solvent))

[CH 3] What is cohesion and adhesion?

1. cohesion- attraction of molecules for other molecules of same kind

   1. water has strong cohesive forces bc of their ability to form H bonds

2. adhesion- attraction of molecules of one kind for molecules of a diff kind

3. high surface tension- H bonding holds molecules in liquid water together

[CH 3] What is heat capacity? What is the latent heat of melting and evaporation?

1. heat capacity- how much energy is needed to raise temp by 1 degree of entire system

2. latent heat of melting- E absorbed when a substance changes from solid to liquid at its melting point w/o changing temp

3. latent heat of evaporation- E absorbed when a substance changes from liquid to gas at its boiling point w/o changing temp

[CH 3] What is a salt? What is salinity? What is the salinity of the ocean?

1. salt- compound that releases ions other than H+ and OH- when dissolved in water 

   1. ex. NaCl releases Na+ and Cl-

2. salinity- level of solutes

   1. measured in parts per thousand(ppt); ~35 ppt in ocean(from weathering of rocks and other sources)

   2. rule of constant proportions- % of total salinity of each ion is constant in ocean

3. salinity of ocean- 96.5% pure water, 3.5% other stuff; mainly salts but other solutes as well

[CH 3] How do salinity, temperature and density relate to each other?

1. colder saline water is denser than less salty, warmer water, and so it’ll sink

[CH 3] What color is absorbed first in the ocean? What about last? How does a Secchi disk work?

1. red is absorbed first, blue is absorbed last

2. a secchi disk measures the transparency of water(indicator of impact of human activity on land surrounding that body water)

[CH 3] How do oxygen, carbon dioxide, salinity, light, temperature, and pressure vary by depth?

1. oxygen-  decreases w/depth

2. carbon dioxide- increases w/depth

3. salinity- varies at surface, but stays constant as you go deeper

4. light- decrease w/depth

5. temperature- decreases w/depth

6. pressure- increases w/depth

[CH 3] What drives ocean circulation at shallow depths? What is the Coriolis effect? How does it deflect ocean currents at the surface?

1. at shallow depths, ocean circulation is driven by wind(powered by sun)

2. coriolis effect- makes things(like planes/currents of air) traveling long distances around Earth to appear to move at a curve vs in a straight line

3. deflects to right in north and to left in south at surface of ocean

[CH 3] How do winds form? What are the different kinds of winds and what are their properties?

1. winds form: sunlight heat air, air rises → cooler air rushes in to take place of air that’s risen

2. trade winds- steady winds at equator

3. westerlies- in mid latitudes; easterlies- at poles

[CH 3] What is Ekman transport?

1. wind + coriolis effect 

[CH 3] What are gyres? How do they act as a thermostat?

1. gyres- large surface currents(wind + coriolis effect + landmasses)

2. act as a thermostat bc high heat capacity of water warms poles and cools tropics

[CH 3] What are the 3 layers of the ocean? What properties does each layer have? What’s a thermocline?

1. surface layer- surface to 200 m deep; well-mixed; wind and coriolis

2. intermediate layer- 200-1500 m deep; thermocline located here; less mixing

3. bottom layer- below 1500 m; low mixing; cold(slow-moving)

4. thermocline- transition layer b/n warmer mixed surface water and colder deep water

[CH 3] What is thermohaline circulation? Where in the ocean does this occur? What is El Nino?

1. thermohaline circulation- begins in earth’s polar regions; when ocean water in these areas gets very cold, sea ice forms → surrounding seawater gets saltier, incr in density and sinks

2. el nino- series of complex weather patterns that happens every 2-7 years; causes drastic changes in weather damages → natural disasters 

[CH 3] What are waves? What’s a wave crest? A wave trough? Wavelength? Wave Period? Fetch?

1. waves- result of wind blowing over water’s surface

2. crest- high point

3. trough- low point

4. wavelength- distance b/n crests/troughs

5. period- time it takes to go by a given point

6. fetch- water that the wind blows on

[CH 3] What is the wave break? What are surf and surge?

1. wave break- as waves get closer to shallow water/shore, bottom of wave drags → waves slow and move closer together → “drag” causes wave crest to fall over

2. surf- at top of wave; surge= below wave

[CH 3] What are tides? How do the moon and sun affect them? What are high tides and low tides? What are spring tides? What are neap tides?

1. tides- rising and falling of sea surface levels 

2. gravitational pull of moon(more) and sun(less) causes tides

3. high tide- waters of side of earth closer to moon are pulled toward moon

4. low tide- waters on far side of earth are pushed away from moon

5. spring tide- lowest lows, highest highs; happens on full/new moon

6.  neap tide- smallest change b/n lows and highs; happens on quarter moon

[CH 3] What are diurnal and semidiurnal tides? What is a mixed semidiurnal tide? What do we have here?

1. diurnal tides- 2 high tides a day

2. semidiurnal tides- 2 low tides a day

3. we have a mixed semidiurnal tide

[CH 5] What is a virus? How does it reproduce? Why is it considered to be non-living? What are retroviruses and bacteriophages?

1. virus- nucleic acid(DNA/RNA) and protein; noncellular

   1. smaller than any cell; has no metabolic machinery of its own(non-living)

2. reproduce using host cell

3. retrovirus- RNA viruses(HIV)

4. bacteriophage- viruses that affect bacteria

[CH 5] What are prokaryotes? Which domains have them? Which prokaryotic domain is considered to be more closely related to eukaryotes? Which prokaryotic domain is the most diverse and abundant?

1. prokaryotes- no nucleus; single-celled and single circular chromosome; most abundant organism on earth

2. Archaea and bacteria have nuclei

3. archaea are closest prokaryotic relatives of eukaryotes

4. bacteria is most diverse and abundant

   1. roles:

      1. degrade oil and other pollutants

      2. cause disease in organisms

      3. endosymbiosis- bioluminescence; toxin in puffer fish

      4. helps recycle nutrients and provides E source for other organisms

[CH 5] What is chemosynthesis?

1. energy from chemicals 

[CH 5] How can prokaryotes get energy?

1. autotrophs get energy through light or chemicals

2. heterotrophs- get energy from organic matters

[CH 5] How do most cyanobacteria get their energy?

1. either by fixing nitrogen, symbiosis, or photosynthesis 

[CH 5] What are the simplest eukaryotes?

1. protists- most unicellular; not fungi/plant/animals but can resemble them

[CH 5] What is algae? What Kingdom do algae belong in?

1. algae- plantlike protists; photosynthetic; most important primary producer on Earth

2. kingdom protista

addnl info:

• mostly solitary and unicellular

• some can form colonies

[CH 5] What are diatoms? Are they unicellular or multicellular? What phylum? How do they get their energy? What is a frustule? What are the two body forms of a diatom? Which one can move?

1. diatoms- single-celled algae

2. phylum bacillariophyta

3. get E through photosynthesis

4. frustule- shell of silica that makes up cell wall of diatoms

5. 2 body forms of a diatom are a centric and pennate; pennate diatoms can move

[CH 5] How do diatoms reproduce?

1. diatoms reproduce by cellular division(form of asexual reproduction)

2. steps:

   1. cell divides and each offspring gets ½ of frustule

   2. this cell now must secrete other half of frustule(smaller piece)

      • diatoms get smaller each time they reproduce

[CH 5] What are dinoflagellates? Are they unicellular or multicellular? What phylum? How do most dinoflagellates get their energy? Why is dinoflagellate a good name for these organisms? What is bioluminescence? What are red tides?

1. dinoflagellates are groups of unicellular algae

2. unicellular

3. phylum dinophyta

4. most are photosynthetic, some more heterotrophic

5. dinoflagellate is a good name is they have 2 flagella located on grooves in their body that produce a spinning/swimming motion

6. bioluminescence- production and emission of light by a living organism

7. red tides- periods of rapid population growth of certain dinoflagellates/algae that can turn water a reddish color and potentially produce harmful toxins

[CH 5] What are zooxanthellae? What is it an example of?

1. type of dinoflagellate that lives inside tissues of marine animals(corals)

2. example of symbiosis(specifically mutualistic relationship)

[CH 5] What are algal blooms? What can cause them?

1. periods of rapid growth and population accumulation in diatoms, dinoflagellates, other unicellular algae

[CH 5] What are some other unicellular algae? What are their properties?

1. cryptophytes(phylum cryptophyta)- 2 flagella

2. silicoflagellates(phylum chrysophyta)- internal skeleton of silica and 2 flagella

3. coccolithophores(phylum haptophyta)- ornate flagellated shells made of calcium carbonate 

[CH 5] What are protozoans? How do they get their energy?

1. protozoans- animal like, single-celled eukaryotic protists

2. E source= heterotrophic

[CH 5] What are foraminiferans? What are pseudopods?

1. foraminiferans(phylum foraminifera)- benthic unicellular protozoans that have calcium carbonate cells 

2. pseudopods- extensions of cytoplasm that project through pores in shell

   1. used for locomotion and capturing prey

[CH 5] What are radiolarians? What are ciliates?

1. radiolarians(phylum radiolaria)- microscopic, planktonic protozoans w/silica shells that use pseudopods to move and feed

2. ciliates(phylum ciliophora)- unicellular protozoans that have hair-like structures called cilia used for locomotion

[CH 5] What are fungi? How do they get their energy? What are lichens?

1. fungi- mostly multicellular eukaryotic organisms from kingdom fungi w/cell walls made of chitin; structurally form filaments called hyphae

2. E source= heterotrophic; many act as decomposers

3. lichens- mutualistic association b/n a fungus and as photosynthetic partner(green algae/cyanobacteria)

[CH 6] How do all these organisms(multi-cellular primary producers) get their energy?

1. through photosynthesis

[CH 6] What kingdom are macroalgae (seaweeds) in?

1. protist; all multicellular algae are seaweeds=macroalgae

[CH 6] What’s a thallus? What are blades, stipes, holdfasts, and pneumatocysts?

1. thallus- body of macroalgae

2. blades- leaf-like structures

3. holdfast- root-like structures

4. pneumatocysts- gas-filled bladders

[CH 6] Where can a seaweed photosynthesize on its body?

1. a seaweed can photosynthesize throughout its thallus(body) (everywhere)

[CH 6] What kingdom are plants in? What are some differences between plants and seaweeds?

1. plantae

2. plants vs macroalgae

   1. blades(macroalgae) have no veins, leaves(plants) have venation for transport of materials

   2. stipes(macroalgae) only provide structure; stems(plants) provide structure AND transport of materials

   3. holdfast(macroalgae) don’t absorb; roots(plants) absorb nutrients and water

[CH 6] What are accessory pigments and why are they important?

1. accessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds in photosynthetic organisms that work w/primary photosynthetic pigments 

2. ex. chlorophyll b, c, carotenoids, and phycobilins

3. they absorb addnl wavelengths of light, enable survival in diff light conditions, and reveal underlying colors

[CH 6] What phylum are green algae in? Which group of algae are considered to be the closest related to land plants? What pigment is dominant in green algae? Where are most green algae found (freshwater or ocean)?

1. green algae- phylum chlorophyta

2. group of chlorophytes thought to be ancestor of land plants

3. chlorophyll is dominant in green algae

4. mostly in fresh-water

[CH 6] What phylum are brown algae in? What is the major accessory pigment found in brown algae? What group has the largest seaweeds? What kind of algae is kelp? Where are most brown algae found (freshwater or ocean)?

1. brown algae- phylum phaeophyta/ochrophyta

2. accessory pigments- chlorophylls a,c, and fucoxanthin(carotenoid, reflects olive-green to dark brown)

3. brown algae has largest seaweeds

4. kelp is a type of brown algae

5. mostly in ocean

[CH 6] What phylum are red algae in? Which group of algae has the most species? Where are most red algae found (freshwater or ocean)? What are coralline algae? What is the major accessory pigment found in red algae? What algal group is found the deepest? Why?

1. red algae- phylum rhodophyta

2. red algae has most species(6000)

3. mostly in ocean

4. coralline algae-calcium carbonate

5. chlorophyll a and phycobilins(masks chlorophyll, mainly red)

6. red algae is found deepest bc that is where either light spectrums fail to reach

[CH 6] What is the alternation of generations? What’s a sporophyte? What do sporophytes produce? Is a sporophyte diploid or haploid? What do diploid and haploid mean? What are gametophytes? Is a gametophyte diploid or haploid? What do gametophytes produce? What is a zygote? Haploid or diploid?

1. alternation of generations- going back and forth b/n diploid and haploid phase

2. sporophyte- what makes spores(n) through meiosis 

3. sporophyte is diploid

4. diploid(2n), haploid(n)

5. gametophytes produce eggs(n) and sperm(n), which make baby plant

6. zygote(2n)- what the haploid gametes(eggs and sperm) fuse into

   1. zygote develops into new sporophyte 

[CH 6] What are the different algal life histories? Are there any without a sporophyte generation? Are there any without a gametophyte generation? Do they all show an alternation of generations? What’s a carposporophyte? In what kind of algae would you find carposporophytes?

1. diff algal life histories- (picture)

2. yes, some don’t have a sporophyte generation; meiosis happens directly in zygote(some green algae)

3. yes, some don’t have a gametophyte generation; meiosis directly produces gametes, like in animals(rockweeds)

4. rockweeds and some green algae show NO alternation of generations

5. carposporophyte- addnl, 3rd gen in some algal life cycles

   1. develops after fertilization of gametes and produces carpospores

6. carposporophytes are present in red algae

[CH 6] How can algae reproduce asexually? Are the offspring the same or different than the parents?

1. algae reproduce asexually by vegetative growth

2. offspring are genetically identical to parent algae

[CH 6] What are algin and carrageenan? In what groups of algae can you find them?

1. algin- brown algae

   1. used as emulsifier(allows oil and water to mix) and thickener in ice cream, cheese, shampoo, shaving cream, puddings, yogurt

2. carrageenan- red algae

   1. also used as emulsifier/thickener 

[CH 6] Where are the majority of flowering plants found? What kingdom? What Phylum?

1. on land

2. kingdom plantae

3. phylum anthophyta

[CH 6] What are seagrasses? What’s an example of a seagrass? How can seagrasses reproduce?

1. seagrasses- only true “marine” plants, full submersion(70 species)

2. ex. eelgrass(most common)

3. reproduce vegetatively via rhizomes/ sexually through underwater pollination of tiny flowers, followed by fruit production

[CH 6] What are salt marsh plants? What does halophyte mean? What is the most common salt marsh plant?

1. salt marsh plants- plants bordering shallow bays and tidal creek

2. halophyte- land plants that are salt-tolerant

3. cordgrass is most common

[CH 6] What are mangroves? Where are they found in the world? How do they reproduce?

1. mangroves- tropical equivalent of salt marshes

2. found in tropical and subtropical areas

3. reproduction

   1. seeds of mangroves germinate(grow) while still attached to parent plant

   2. develop into elongated seedlings(propagules) up to 1 ft in length before falling from parent tree

   3. propagules drop into nearby soils/are carried by water currents to new locations

   4. also halophytic