Comprehensive Study Guide: Biological Systems, Cell Biology, Physiology, and Environmental Science (copy)

Hierarchical Structural Organization

The arrangement of living organisms from atoms to the biosphere, including molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and ecosystems.

Macromolecules

Large biological molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that are essential for life.

Cell Theory

Principles stating that all living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus and are more complex.

Total Magnification Formula

The formula used to calculate the magnification of a microscope: Total Magnification = Ocular Lens Magnification × Objective Lens Magnification.

Photosynthesis

The process by which photoautotrophic organisms capture solar energy and convert it into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen.

Light-Dependent Reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis occurring in the thylakoid membranes, where sunlight is converted into ATP and NADPH.

Calvin Cycle

The light-independent stage of photosynthesis that occurs in the stroma, using ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide.

Chloroplast

The plant cell organelle where photosynthesis occurs.

Ecosystem

A community of interacting populations and their abiotic environment.

Resolution

The ability of a microscope to distinguish between two closely placed points.

Magnification

The factor by which an optical instrument increases the apparent size of an image.

Centrosome

A microtubule-organizing center in animal cells, containing a pair of centrioles.

Lysosomes

Acidic membrane-enclosed vesicles containing enzymes for digesting cellular macromolecules.

Cytoplasm

The semi-fluid medium inside the cell that supports organelles and is the site of metabolic reactions.

Cell Membrane

A flexible lipid bilayer that surrounds the cell and regulates the movement of substances in and out.