U4 Euro Sci. Revolution + Enlightenment

What historical events were happening around the time of the Scientific Revolution?

The Renaissance, Reformation, and Absolutism.

What was one cause of the Scientific Revolution?

The Italian Renaissance.

How did the Italian Renaissance contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

It increased emphasis on education and spread Humanism, which encouraged self-improvement.

How did patronage contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

Patronage of art also led to patronage of the sciences.

How did mathematics contribute to the Scientific Revolution?

Mathematics was used to create linear perspective using straight lines and proportionality.

What was another cause of the Scientific Revolution?

The Age of Exploration.

Why did the Age of Exploration encourage scientific development?

Long sea voyages required an accurate understanding of the heavens and the development of technology.

Who was becoming educated during this period?

The average person, not just wealthy people.

Before the Scientific Revolution, what was believed about motion in the heavens?

All motion in the heavens was uniform and circular, reflecting the perfection of God.

What was the Ptolemaic model?

The geocentric model, which placed Earth at the center of the universe with everything orbiting Earth.

What was believed about the objects in the heavens before the Scientific Revolution?

They were made from perfect, unchanging material.

Where was Earth believed to be located before the Scientific Revolution?

At the center of the universe.

Who was Copernicus?

A scientist who challenged the Ptolemaic model with the heliocentric model.

Why did Copernicus want to create a perfect model of the universe?

To glorify God, not to challenge the Catholic Church.

What was the heliocentric model?

The model in which Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun.

What book did Copernicus publish, and when?

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, published in 1543.

Why did Copernicus publish his book only shortly before his death?

He knew controversy would be caused and did not want to be punished.

What did Copernicus's work help launch?

The Scientific Revolution in the mid-1500s.

What were Kepler's major contributions?

Three laws of planetary motion.

What was Kepler's big idea about planetary orbits?

Planets have elliptical, or oval-shaped, orbits.

Do planets move at a uniform speed in their orbits?

No, planets do not move at a uniform speed.

What is the relationship between a planet's orbit time and its distance from the Sun?

The time it takes to orbit is related to its distance from the Sun.

What is the difference between astrology and astronomy?

They are two different things.

What was Galileo's experimental method?

Testing ideas through experimentation instead of just speculating.

What did Galileo believe about the universe?

The universe is subject to mathematical laws.

What did Galileo discover using the telescope?

The moons of Jupiter, sunspots, and the phases of Venus.

Why was Galileo's use of the telescope important?

He was the first European man to use a telescope for these discoveries.

Astrology vs. Astronomy

Astrology focuses on interpreting celestial events as influences on human affairs; astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and the universe.

Galileo Galilei

Scientist who used experimentation and observation to challenge traditional beliefs about the universe.

Galileo's experimental method

A method based on testing ideas through experiments and observation rather than merely speculating.

Galileo's view of the universe

Believed the universe was governed by mathematical laws.

Galileo's telescope discoveries

Observed Jupiter's moons, sunspots, and the phases of Venus.

Why was Galileo important?

He was among the first Europeans to use a telescope for astronomical observations, providing evidence that challenged traditional views.

Why was Galileo tried by the Inquisition?

He was tried for heresy in connection with defending Copernican heliocentrism.

Galileo and the Catholic Church

Galileo was ordered to recant his position and spent the remainder of his life under house arrest.

Copernican theory

The theory that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Nicolaus Copernicus's book presenting the heliocentric model of the universe.

Isaac Newton

Scientist who explained the universe through mathematical laws of nature.

Newton's law of universal gravitation

Every object attracts every other object through gravity; gravity helps keep planets in orbit around the Sun.

Scientific method

A systematic approach to investigating questions through observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning that begins with specific observations or data and develops a general conclusion or theory.

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning that begins with a general principle or hypothesis and draws a specific conclusion.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher known for promoting inductive reasoning and empiricism.

Empiricism

The idea that experience and observation are important sources of knowledge.

Why is Francis Bacon called the father of empiricism?

He emphasized using observation and experience to develop knowledge.

René Descartes

French philosopher associated with deductive reasoning and the principle, 'I think, therefore I am.'

Descartes's method of doubt

The practice of questioning beliefs and assumptions to find something that can be known with certainty.

'I think, therefore I am'

Descartes's argument that the act of thinking proves his existence as a thinking being.

Descartes's two substances

Matter or physical body, and mind or thought.

Women in the Scientific Revolution

Women were generally excluded from scientific institutions and academies, although some contributed to scientific work.

Why were women excluded from science?

Social expectations and institutional restrictions limited women's access to education, scientific societies, and laboratories.

How did the Scientific Revolution affect women's opportunities?

Some women gained scientific opportunities, but women continued to face significant barriers to formal participation.

Maria Winkelmann

German astronomer who discovered a comet and was excluded from the Berlin Academy.

Maria Winkelmann's discovery

She discovered a comet in 1702.

Why was Maria Winkelmann excluded from the Berlin Academy?

Women were not permitted to become members of the academy despite their scientific contributions.

Effects of the Scientific Revolution

Growth of scientific communities, development of the modern scientific method, and greater belief that nature follows laws.

Scientific community

A community of researchers who share observations, communicate findings, and investigate questions.

Deism

The belief that God created the universe and its natural laws but does not continually intervene in its operation.

Mechanical view of the universe

The view that the universe operates like a machine according to predictable natural laws.

How did the Scientific Revolution affect religion?

Some thinkers tried to reconcile science and religion, while others adopted deism or emphasized natural explanations.

Natural laws

Consistent rules that govern how the natural world behaves.

The Enlightenment

An intellectual movement that emphasized reason, questioning authority, and using logic to understand the world.

Age of Reason

Another name for the Enlightenment.

Main goal of the Enlightenment

Use reason to discover laws governing the physical world and solve social, political, and economic problems.

What did Enlightenment thinkers question?

The status quo, traditional beliefs, and established authority.

Where did Enlightenment ideas spread in France?

Through salons hosted by prominent women.

Where did Enlightenment ideas spread in London?

Through coffeehouses.

What were salons?

Gatherings, often hosted by women, where people discussed and spread Enlightenment ideas.

What did Enlightenment thinkers believe about solving problems?

Social, political, and economic problems could be solved through reason.

What did Enlightenment thinkers believe about equality?

All men were created free and equal.

What role did women play in the Enlightenment?

Women hosted salons and helped spread Enlightenment ideas; women were welcomed in some intellectual discussions.

What did Enlightenment thinkers believe government was created to do?

Maintain an orderly society.

What is separation of powers?

Dividing government power among different branches to protect human liberties.

Who is associated with separation of powers?

Montesquieu.

What is a free market?

An economic system in which trade operates with little or no government regulation.

What is absolute monarchy?

A system of government in which a monarch holds nearly all political power.

Thomas Hobbes

An English political philosopher who supported a strong ruler and absolute monarchy.

What book did Thomas Hobbes write?

Leviathan, published in 1651.

What was Hobbes's view of human nature?

Humans are naturally selfish and need a strong government to keep order.

According to Hobbes, what is the state of nature?

A condition without effective government in which life is insecure and people may struggle against one another.

What did Hobbes believe about rebellion?

He opposed rebellion against the ruler because it could cause disorder and conflict.

Why did Hobbes support a strong ruler?

He believed people needed a powerful authority to prevent chaos and keep society running.

How did the English Civil War influence Hobbes?

It reinforced his belief that a strong government was necessary to prevent disorder and civil conflict.

Whose ideas influenced Hobbes?

Niccolò Machiavelli's ideas about political power are noted in the class notes as an influence.

John Locke

An Enlightenment thinker who supported natural rights, social contract theory, and the right to overthrow an oppressive government.

What work did John Locke write?

Two Treatises of Civil Government.

When were Locke's Two Treatises of Civil Government published?

They were published in 1689, after the Glorious Revolution.

What is social contract theory according to Locke?

Government is formed through an agreement between the people and their rulers.

What right do people have under Locke's ideas?

The right to overthrow an oppressive government that violates their rights.

What are Locke's natural rights?

Life, liberty, and property.

How did Locke influence government?

His ideas helped lay the foundation for democratic government.

What was the Glorious Revolution?

The 1688 revolution in England that helped limit the monarch's power and establish parliamentary authority.

Voltaire

A French Enlightenment writer who supported religious tolerance, rational thinking, and freedom of speech.

What did Voltaire think about organized religion?

He criticized organized religion and opposed the Catholic Church's influence over society and government.

What was Voltaire's background?

He came from a wealthy French family, was educated, and wanted to become a writer.

What did Voltaire believe about religious doctrines?

They should be examined through rational thinking rather than accepted without question.

What did Voltaire want regarding religion?

Religious tolerance, including greater tolerance in Catholic France.