AP psych cognition

perception

The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

Bottom-up processing

“Details to big picture'“ is a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with small details and then building up to a complete perception

Top Down processing

“Big picture details” involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations.

selective attention

The process of focusing of a specific aspect of information while ignoring others.

cocktail party effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli.

Inattentional blindness

When an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else.

Change blindness

The failure to notice large changes in one’s environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual distortion.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us

Perceptual set

The tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of available sensory data and ignore others

Proximity (gestalt principle)

Proximity is the physical or psychological closeness between objects that often are perceived as one unit

similarity (gestalt principle)

Similarity is the connection the brain makes between visual and auditory stimulants that share characteristics.

continuity (gestalt principle)

Continuity is a visual tendency to perceive elements as a sustained line rather than a cut segment

Closure (gestalt principle)

Closure is the tendency of the brain to automatically complete gaps in incomplete visuals to create a whole object or picture

symmetry (gestalt principle)

Similarity is the connection the brain makes between visual and auditory stimulants that share characteristics

gestalt psychology

We perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than just a collection of parts

Figure ground

Refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from it’s surroundings (ground)

Binocular depth cues

Visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Retinal disparity

When each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face.

convergence

When our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

Monocular depth cues

Visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye

Relative clarity

A depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceives as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away.

Relative size

A visual cue where objects closer to us seem larger while objects further away may appear smaller

Texture gradient

The way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

Linear perspective

A depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

Interposition

Occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive overlapping objects as closer

Perceptual constancies

Our brain’s ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina changes (such as size, shape and color)

Shape constancy

our ability to perceive ab object as having the same shape even when our angle of view or distance from which we see the object changes

Size constancy

Our perception that an object remains the same size even when the distance from us changes, causing the image in on our retina to shrink or grow

color constancy

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions

Apparent movement

The perception of motion when there isn’t actually any movement

metacognition

Thinking about one’s own thinking process (making note cards, practice testing) retaining info

executive functions

Cognitive process that allows individuals to generate, organize, plan and carry out goals-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts (first thing that comes to mind when thinking, thinking of characteristics, fruits =seeds, sweet, leaves)

schemas

Cognitive framework or blueprint that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

Assimilation

The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas (labradors and chihuahuas are both dogs)

Accomodation

The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information (dogs and sheep=4 legged animals)

Convergent thinking

Cognitive process that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

Functional fixedness

Cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Algorithms

Step by step formulas or procedures for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

divergent thinking

a thought process of method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” that simplify decision-making by reducing the cognitive burden (eg. I like this brand so I will buy it instead of looking around)

Representative Heuristic

Cognitive shortcut wherein an individual makes judgements about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases (eg. Male wearing scrubs=doctor, bunny running= being chased by a predator)

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s minds when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. (eg. sees a plane crash= I never want to fly)

Mental set

A tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that methods worked in the past, which can sometimes prevent seeing alternative solutions.

priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. (pretty colors on a store can make you want to shop there)

Framing

How information is presented, influences decisions and perception (eg. 90% fat-free vs. 10% fat)

Gambler’s fallacy

Cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influences by previous outcomes, even though each event is independent and has no bearing on future results.

Sunk-Cost fallacy

Cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time, money, or effort into a project or decision because they already have invested so much, even if the return is poor or the endeavor no longer aligns with their goals.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time, it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved.

Encoding

The first stage of memory where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

storage

the process of retaining information in the brain overtime

retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored infor back into conscious awareness

Multi-Store model

Describes memory as a three part system that includes: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory

Sensory memory

The initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for small stimuli received through the sense and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most. (makes a decision to focus on a sensory stimuli. When you sit in a chair you focus on it for a few seconds before ignoring the feeling)

Iconic memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades.

echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

Short Term memory

Temporarily holds a small amount of information for about 15-30 seconds and has limited capacity (about 7 things)

Long Term memory

The stage of memory where info is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. It allows long term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences and facts.

Working memory

Form of short term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short term and long term memory combine.

Central executive

The control center of working memory, manages attention, coordinates other memory components and integrates information from our senses and long term memory

Phonological loop

Component of working memory, responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

Component of working memory that handles visual and spatial info. It allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relation.

Long term potentiation (LTP)

Long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that result from their simultaneous activation. LTP is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency and well-learned tasks.

Effortful processing

Type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long term memory

Level of processing model

Proposes that the depth at which info is thought about affects how well it is remembered.

Shallow processing

A basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words without engaging its meaning

Structural

Type of sallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic

Shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

Deep encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

Chunking

Memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of info into a larger, meaningful unit

(eg. phone numbers)

Categories (grouping)

Method of organizing info by grouping related items together into categories.

Hierarchies (grouping)

Organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels

(eg. Pink= Magenta, baby pink, fuchsia)

Mnemonics

Techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling info by associating it with simple patterns, vivid images, or rhymes.

Method of Loci

Mnemonic techniques that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations (greek palace)

explicit memory

Involves the conscious recall of facts and experiences

Semantic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

episodic memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

Autobiographical memory

Type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individuals own life. It combines episodic and semantic memory

Implicit memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically

procedural memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform skills automatically

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned invention at some future point

massed practice (cramming)

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks.

spacing effect “distributed practice”

The phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session

Maintenance rehearsal

Learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in our short term memory

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

retrieval cues

stimuli that helps bring previously learned information to mind. They play a critical role in the process of retrieving memories and can be external cues (environmental triggers) or internal cues (thoughts associated with orginal learning)

Recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (spontaneously)

recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented. It includes: Familiarity-Sensing that something has been encompassed before. Identification: matching new information with stored knowledge.

Context dependant memory

When you remember information better in the same environment you learned it

state-dependant memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one’s current mood

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle

primacy effect

cognitive phenomenon where individual tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow

recency effect

phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle

testing effect

Phenomenon where long term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing

metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory (realizing you should study a different way that would be more helpful)

The forgetting curve

Graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time

encoding failure

occurs when information does not enter long term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding

proactive interference

Occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information

(your friend moved to a new house but everytime you go to hang out with her, you drive to her old house)