Bio 1510 end chapter 6 beginning chapter 7

What is the process of forming proteins from amino acids called?

Carapalicoanomalic trauma.

What is the term for the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the digestive tract?

Catabolism.

Where does glycolysis occur in the cell?

In the cytoplasm.

How many reactions are involved in glycolysis?

10 different reactions.

What is a biochemical pathway?

A series of chemical reactions that occur in the same area, where the product of one enzyme serves as a substrate for another enzyme.

What is positive feedback in biochemical pathways?

A process where the final product increases its own production.

Give an example of positive feedback.

The release of oxytocin during childbirth.

What is negative feedback?

A process where the final product inhibits its own production.

Provide an example of negative feedback.

ATP inhibits its own production when levels are too high.

What is ATP?

A modified nucleotide that serves as an energy carrier in cells.

What type of inhibitor is ATP considered?

Non-competitive inhibitor.

What does ATP hydrolysis produce?

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

What is the role of water in ATP hydrolysis?

Water is used to break down ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate.

What are the components of ATP?

A ribose sugar, adenine base, and three phosphate groups.

How does ATP release energy?

By breaking the high-energy bonds between phosphate groups.

What distinguishes ribose from deoxyribose?

Ribose has a hydroxyl group attached to the carbon number two, while deoxyribose has a hydrogen atom.

What type of bond is associated with the high-energy phosphate groups in ATP?

Phosphoanhydride bonds.

What happens to enzyme activity when ATP binds to its allosteric site?

Enzyme activity is inhibited due to a change in the enzyme's shape.

What is the significance of the active site of an enzyme?

It is where the substrate binds to undergo a chemical reaction.

What is the difference between competitive and non-competitive inhibitors?

Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for the active site, while non-competitive inhibitors bind to an allosteric site.

What is the role of oxytocin during labor?

It stimulates uterine contractions and increases its own production via positive feedback.

How does negative feedback maintain homeostasis in the body?

By inhibiting the production of substances when they reach sufficient levels.

What is the final product of the biochemical pathway discussed?

Oxytocin.

What is the function of enzyme 1 in the biochemical pathway?

It converts the initial substrate into intermediate substrate A.

What occurs if the initial substrate cannot bind to enzyme 1?

The entire biochemical pathway is halted, preventing further product formation.

What is the relationship between intermediate substrates in a biochemical pathway?

Each intermediate substrate serves as a product for one enzyme and a substrate for the next.

What is the primary role of enzymes in biochemical pathways?

To catalyze chemical reactions and facilitate the conversion of substrates into products.

How does the body primarily regulate metabolic pathways?

Through feedback mechanisms, both positive and negative.

What are the building blocks of DNA and RNA?

Nucleotides

What type of bond forms between nucleotides in a strand of DNA or RNA?

Phosphodiester bonds

What is the role of ATP in cellular energy?

ATP serves as the primary energy currency of the cell.

How does ATP convert to ADP?

ATP dephosphorylates to ADP and inorganic phosphate.

What is the energy relationship between ATP, ADP, and AMP?

ATP has more energy than ADP, which has more energy than AMP.

What happens when enzyme 3 is inactive in a metabolic pathway?

Products D and E will not be produced.

If enzyme 2 is inactive, which products will not be produced?

C, D, E, F, and G will not be produced.

What is negative feedback in metabolic pathways?

Negative feedback inhibits enzyme activity, preventing overproduction.

What is the difference between anabolic and catabolic reactions?

Anabolic reactions build molecules and require energy; catabolic reactions break down molecules and release energy.

What is the role of enzymes in metabolic reactions?

Enzymes lower the activation energy needed for reactions to occur.

What factors can affect enzyme activity?

pH, temperature, and the presence of inhibitors or activators.

What are activators in enzyme activity?

Molecules that enhance enzyme function, including cofactors and coenzymes.

What is the primary energy source for all cells?

ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

What is the general equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.

Why is cellular respiration considered catabolic?

It breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy.

What is the significance of free energy in chemical reactions?

Free energy determines the spontaneity of reactions; exergonic reactions release energy.

What is the change in free energy (ΔG) for exergonic reactions?

ΔG is less than zero.

What is the change in free energy (ΔG) for endergonic reactions?

ΔG is greater than zero.

What is the function of cofactors in enzyme activity?

Cofactors assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions.

What are coenzymes?

Organic molecules that act as cofactors, such as vitamins.

What happens to the shape of an enzyme when a substrate binds?

The enzyme undergoes a conformational change.

What is the relationship between reactants and products in exergonic reactions?

Reactants have more free energy than products.

What is the role of inorganic phosphate in ATP synthesis?

Inorganic phosphate combines with ADP to regenerate ATP.

What is the result of enzyme inhibition?

It prevents the enzyme from catalyzing its substrate.

What is the primary function of catabolic reactions?

To break down larger molecules into smaller ones and release energy.

What is the primary purpose of cellular respiration?

To produce ATP.

What are the reactants of cellular respiration?

Glucose and oxygen.

What are the products of cellular respiration?

Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

What happens to glucose during cellular respiration?

It is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

What happens to oxygen during cellular respiration?

It is reduced to water.

What is glycolysis?

The first stage of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.

Where does glycolysis occur?

In the cytoplasm.

What is produced during glycolysis?

A small amount of ATP and two molecules of pyruvate.

What is pyruvate oxidation?

The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial matrix.

What is the citric acid cycle also known as?

The Krebs cycle.

Where does the citric acid cycle occur?

In the mitochondrial matrix.

What is the electron transport chain (ETC)?

The final stage of cellular respiration that occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane.

What is chemiosmosis?

The process that produces ATP using the proton gradient created by the electron transport chain.

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

A method of producing ATP directly from a phosphorylated organic substrate.

What enzyme is involved in substrate-level phosphorylation?

Kinase.

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A process that produces more ATP than substrate-level phosphorylation and occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

What is the role of kinases in cellular respiration?

They catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups to produce ATP.

What is the significance of the mitochondrial matrix?

It is where pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle occur.

What is the relationship between glycolysis and fermentation?

Glycolysis can occur in the absence of oxygen, leading to fermentation.

What does ATP stand for?

Adenosine triphosphate.

What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, while anaerobic does not.

What is produced during the Krebs cycle?

ATP, high-energy electrons, and carbon dioxide.

What is the main goal of cellular respiration?

To generate ATP for cellular activities.

What type of reaction is substrate-level phosphorylation?

An exergonic reaction that releases energy.

What is phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)?

An organic substrate that donates a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP.

What happens to the energy from electrons during cellular respiration?

It is used to make ATP.

What is the role of the inner mitochondrial membrane?

It houses the electron transport chain.

What is the significance of the citric acid cycle in relation to pyruvate oxidation?

The citric acid cycle requires acetyl-CoA produced from pyruvate oxidation.

Where does substrate-level phosphorylation occur?

In the cytoplasm and mitochondrial matrix.

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

In the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Which process produces more ATP, substrate-level phosphorylation or oxidative phosphorylation?

Oxidative phosphorylation.

What enzyme is required for substrate-level phosphorylation?

Kinases.

What enzyme is required for oxidative phosphorylation?

ATP synthase.

Do prokaryotes have mitochondria?

No, prokaryotes do not have mitochondria but can still produce ATP.

What is ATP synthase?

An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Where is ATP synthase located in eukaryotes?

On the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Where is ATP synthase located in prokaryotes?

In the plasma membrane.

What is a proton gradient?

An uneven distribution of hydrogen ions across a membrane, created by proton pumps.

What type of transport do proton pumps use to move hydrogen ions?

Active transport.

What is the direction of hydrogen ion movement by proton pumps?

From the mitochondrial matrix (low concentration) to the intermembrane space (high concentration).

What powers ATP synthase?

The energy from the proton gradient.

What is facilitated diffusion?

The passive transport of molecules across a membrane via a protein channel.

How do hydrogen ions move through ATP synthase?

Down their concentration gradient via facilitated diffusion.

What is the role of electrons in proton pumps?

Electrons provide the energy needed for active transport of hydrogen ions.

What happens during the process of chemiosmosis?

Hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase, leading to ATP production.

What distinguishes facilitated diffusion from simple diffusion?

Facilitated diffusion requires a membrane protein, while simple diffusion does not.

What is the concentration gradient in relation to hydrogen ions in the mitochondrial matrix?

The concentration of hydrogen ions is lower in the matrix compared to the intermembrane space.