Bias and Underrepresentation in Media and Technology Cultural Identity Development

How are people of color in the media represented?

stereotypical representations

criminalization & model minority stereotype & eroticization

What did Gene Davis Institute 2020 Report on children’s TV shows say about GENDER?

45% of children’s tv episodes have a female lead

female characters 3x more likely to be in revealing clothes or partially nude

male characters more likely to be violent, 2x more likely to be depicted as a criminal

among characters in STEM professions, male characters outnumber female characters 2 to 1

What did Gene Davis Institute 2020 Report on children’s TV shows say about race/ethnicity?

31.9% of leads were POC

characters of color more likely to be shown as violent than white characters

what did Gene Davis institute 2020 report on children’s tv shows say about LGBTQ and disability?

lgbtq: less than 1% of all characters in top children’s tv shows are lgbtq

-0.8% of all characters in top children’s tv shows with disability what

what did gene Davis institute 2020 report on children’s tv shows say about body size?

11.3% of all characters; 5.9% of leading characters w/ large body types

typically depicted in stereotypical ways like clumsy, loser, poorly dressed

Sanoicolo et al (2023)

examined the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification, and sexualization

How has attention to gender grow in media?

Sanoicolo et al (2023)

public interest in gender issues have increased over the past decade

social and political movements have pushed for more equal and accurate representation

academic research on gender (especially in media) has rapidly expanded

social media platforms have transformed how people consume and engage with gender portrayals

what are the 3 types of gender stereotypes?

descriptive, prescriptive, and proscriptive

Descriptive

beliefs about how genders are

prescriptive

beliefs about how genders should bepr

proscriptive

beliefs about how genders should not be

objectification

objectification occurs when a person is treated as an object rather than a full human being.

reduces individuals to their physical appearance/usefulness.

Key features of objectification

key features include:

• been seen as a tool for others’ purposes

• lack of autonomy or independence

• ignoring thoughts, feelings, or experiences

• most commonly directed toward women in media

sexualization

sexualization occurs when a person’s value is primarily based on their sexual appeal or behavior.

• hyper focused on aperance/sexual identity, equating their worth to their attractiveness

media representations of gender

media frequently overrpresents men and underrepresents women

in media, women are less likely to appear as what?

women are less likely to appear as experts or authority figures

women are often portrayed as

focused on beauty and physical appearance

passive, nurturing, dependent on others

men are often portrayed as:

active, dominant, goal oriented

skilled, rational, independent

effects of stereotyping, objectification, and sexualization

• reinforces traditional gender roles and expectations across society

• encourages internalization of unrealistic body & appearance

• increases self objectification and constant monitoring of one’s appearance

• linked to negative mental health outcomes: depression, anxiety, lower self esteem & confidence, body shame

• stronger endorsement of sexist beliefs

• greater tolerance of sexual harassment and violence

• increases ED

• increases risky or coercive behaviors (especially in men)

Saleem et al (2026)

meta analysis review of 60 studies on media depictions and outgroup evaluations

looked at various social groups, how they’re portrayed, how people are impacted, and how their attitudes are influenced by the types of portrayal

Salem et al (2026) Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: negative portayals = unfavorable evaluations

hypothesis 2: positive portrayals=favorable evaluations

salem et al (2026) wondered if effects of people’s attitudes towards groups vary by what?

wanted to know if effects vary by

• outgroup

• outcome type

• media type

• genre

• study design

• method quality

Salem et al (2026) found what with black americans in media?

black americans had improvements in representation sa

salen et al (2026) found what with native americans/middle eastern groups in media?

underrepresented or negatively portrayed

salem et al 2026— what creates worse attitudes towards groups from media?

low visibility (in media) + negative (portrayal in media)=worse attitudes (towards that group)

what types of outcomes did salem et al 2026 look for?

cognitive (beliefs stereotypes)

affective (emotions)

behavioral (actions)

policy (support for laws)

what medium types did Salem et al (2026) use?

tv, text, gameswha

what genre did salem et al (2026) use?

entertainment: immersive, emotional

news: often negative, strong impact

salem 2026 (entertainment impact)

immersive, emotional

salem et al (news impact)

often negative, strong impact

results of salem et al

negative portrayals—> negative evaluations

positive portrayals—> positive evaluations

no significant moderators

What did 2021 common sense cents find?

that tweens spend about 5 hours a day on social media

that teens spend about 8 hours a day on social media

how underrepresentation or biased representation affects children?

1) internalized societal expectations and values

2) development of stereotypes

3) negative intergroup relations

how can underrepresentation or negative depictions of your own group affect you?

it can have negative impact on your identity, self concept, and aspirations

why do biases exist in technology?

because they’re created by humans?

resume scanning algorithm (bias in technology)

resume scanning algorithms prefer resumes with English sounding names 40% more often than identical resumes w/ chinese, Indian, or Pakistani names

bias in technology (facial recognition systems)

greater inaccuracy recognizing dark skinned faces in facial recognition systems

biases in technology (automatic soap dispensers)

automatic soap dispensers having greater difficulty reading darker skins due to light sensors’ settings

what were the “glitches” in search engines around 2019-2020? (biases in tech)

first results for searches of asian girls, Latinas, black girls were porn sites

Tripartite Model of Personal Identity

Understanding that our self-perceptions are made up of:

• unique, individual aspects

• aspects of groups to which we belong

• universal aspects of human beings

Tripartite Model of personal identity: individual level

Individual level: uniqueness

• our town genetics and experiences

  • own identity, personality

tripartite model of personal identity: Group Level

Group Level: similarities and differences

• share traits with some people but differ from others

  • ex) race, gender, age, etc.

African American Identity Development

Psychological process of becoming black

what model does the African american identity development use

it uses the cross’ model

What are the stages of the Cross’ model

1) pre encounter stage

2) encounter stage

3) immersion/emersion stage

4) internalization stage

Pre encounter stage (cross’ model)

Lack of understanding about race beyond basic skin color

• see only skin color, don’t know culture or history

Devaluing “blackness” and idealizing “whiteness”

• negative stereotypes about their own racial group; believe white is the standard/most desirable

encounter stage (cross’ model)

significant event that cause individuals to reevaluate their attitude about race

realization of racism/discrimination against their own racial group

emotions of anger and guilt may be experienced

ex) assassination of Martin Luther king

immersion emersion stage (cross’ model)

reversed attitudes

• ex: idealizing blackness

immersion stage: withdrawal from the dominant group/culture (aware of racism makes them uncomfy w/ dominant group)

as individuals move closer to the EMERSION stage, they realize they may be good and bad in any race. intense anger and avoidance start to fade.

internalization stage (cross’ model)

feeling positive and secure about their African american black identity, allow them to accept other cultures

European american identity development uses what model?

Helm’s model

what are the stages in Helm’s model?

1) contact

2) diintegration

3)reintegration

4) pseudo independence

5) immersion/emersion

6) autonomy

contact (helms’ model)

timid and uncertain about race

unaware of racism, predjuice, privilege

lack of experience with people from other backgrounds

may profess to being color blind (I don’t see color)

disintegration (helm’s model)

increased contact w/ people from diverse backgrounds

realize that their experiences and those of people of color may be different; may be first time realizing racism exist

may experience guilty, anxiety, helplessness; feel uncomfortable

reintegration (helm’s model)

retreating to their comfort zone to resolve conflicts

• ex) passively/actively supporting white superiority

blaming the disadvantaged for their status/challenges

pseudo-independence (helm’s model)

first phase of non racist European american identity

distance themselves from their racial group

acknowledge racism; however, may believe that is’ the people of color who should change

immersion/ emersion (helm’s model)

learn more about their own culture; form more positive white identity while assuming personal responsibility for racism

begin to feel comfortable being white and non racist

autonomy (helm’s model)

positive white identity accomplished

acknowledge their privilege and work to combat discrimination

most models are influenced by what?

most models are influenced by cross’ model

Multiracial identity development (personal identity stage)

identify based on personal factors not on group membership

multiracial identity development (choice of group categorization stage)

pressure to choose 1 identity

Davenport (2016) found what?

found for women, they are more likely to identify as bi-racial

men are more likely to identify with the racial minority group

biracial women more perceived as ‘exotic, mysterious’ ; people more likely to perceive biracial men as the minority

multiracial identity development (enmeshment/denial stage)

feeling guilty for choose 1 group over another

multiracial identity development (appreciation stage)

exploring the racial identity that was initially ignoring

multirracial identity development (integration stage)

realization that embracing both races/ethnicities is beneficial

what are some critiques of the stage models?

most models assume linear progression through each stage

Not all individuals being with idealization of European americans while denigrating their racial minority identity/culture

Accept stage as the final stage

Assumes the final stage (achieving pride in their group while integrating into the dominant group) to be the ''healthiest’

how should one think of the identity process?

better to think of identity as a dynamic, non linear, and continuous process

Cass (1979) model

identify model for people who fall along the LGBTQ continuum

socioeconomic status/ social class identity development model?

no identity model currently

Paradox of upward mobility

Higher SES usually predicts better psychological and physical health

But upward mobility can be costly for low SES racial/ethnic minority students

status based identity uncertainty

conflicting beliefs about social standing

conflict between past and future status

negative outcomes with status based identity uncertainty

lower self esteem, lower life satisfaction, reduce academic motivation and performance

factors that can moderate status based identity

strong social support

predictors of status uncertainty

discrimination: racial/ethnic/SES based

Cultural mismatch in college:

interdependent norms (collective) norms vs college’s independent norms